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• Instructions for online access
• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Any screen, Any time, Anywhere
• Copyright
• User Guide
• Color Coding
• Elsevier eBooks+ Version
• Video Table of Contents
• Preface
• Preface to First Edition
• Contributors
• In Memory of Emanuel S. Rosen, MD, FRCSE
• Acknowledgments
• Dedication
• Dedication
• Part 1: Genetics
• 1.1. Fundamentals of Human Genetics
• Abstract
• Dna and the Central Dogma of Human Genetics
• Human Genome
• Basic Mendelian Principles
• Mutations
• Genes and Phenotypes
• Patterns of Human Inheritance
• Molecular Mechanisms of Disease
• Gene Therapy
• Key References
• References
• 1.2. Molecular Genetics of Selected Ocular Disorders
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Dominant Corneal Dystrophies
• Aniridia, Peters’ Anomaly, and Autosomal Dominant Keratitis
• Rieger’s Syndrome
• Juvenile Glaucoma
• Congenital Glaucoma
• Nonsyndromic Congenital Cataract
• Retinitis Pigmentosa
• Stargardt Disease
• X-Linked Juvenile Retinoschisis
• Norrie’s Disease
• Sorsby’s Macular Dystrophy
• Gyrate Atrophy
• Color Vision
• Retinoblastoma
• Albinism
• Leber’s Optic Neuropathy
• Congenital Fibrosis Syndromes and Disorders of Axon Guidance
• Autosomal Dominant Optic Atrophy
• Complex Traits
• Key References
• References
• 1.3. Genetic Testing and Genetic Counseling
• Abstract
• Genetic Testing
• Genetic Counseling
• Key References
• References
• Part 2: Optics and Refraction
• 2.1. Light
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Geometrical Optics
• Basic Stigmatic Optics
• Astigmatic Optics
• Wave Properties of Light
• Key References
• References
• 2.2. Optics of the Human Eye
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Cornea
• Pupil
• Lens
• Accommodation
• Retina
• Refractive Errors
• Key References
• References
• 2.3. Clinical Refraction
• Introduction
• Visual Acuity
• Spherical Equivalent
• Detecting Astigmatism
• Refracting at Near
• Additional Subjective Techniques
• Retinoscopy
• Key References
• References
• 2.4. Correction of Refractive Errors
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Spectacle Correction
• Contact Lenses
• Intraocular Lenses
• Keratorefractive Surgery
• Key References
• References
• 2.5. Ophthalmic Instruments
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Direct Ophthalmoscope
• Binocular Indirect Ophthalmoscope
• Fundus Camera
• Optos Wide-Field Fundus Imaging
• Optical Coherence Tomography
• OCT Angiography
• Slit-Lamp Biomicroscope
• Slit-Lamp Fundus Lenses
• Goldmann Applanation Tonometer
• Specular Microscope
• Operating Microscope
• Keratometer and Corneal Topographer
• Lensmeter
• Automated Refractor
• Magnifying Devices
• Key References
• References
• 2.6. Wavefront Optics and Aberrations of the Eye
• Introduction
• Ray Aberrations
• The Wavefront Approach To Aberrations
• Spherical Aberration
• Coma
• Distortion
• Field Curvature
• Oblique Astigmatism
• Higher-Order Aberrations
• Chromatic Aberration
• Measurement Of Ocular Aberrations
• An Overall Perspective On Aberration Theory
• Key References
• References
• Part 3: Refractive Surgery
• 3.1. Current Concepts, Classification, and History of Refractive Surgery
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Classification of Refractive Procedures
• Summary
• Key References
• References
• 3.2. Preoperative Evaluation for Refractive Surgery
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Ophthalmic Examination
• Ancillary Testing
• Counseling
• Key References
• References
• 3.3. Excimer Laser Surface Ablation: Photorefractive Keratectomy (PRK), Laser-Assisted Subepithelial Keratomileusis (LASEK) and Epi-LASIK
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Ablation Profiles
• Indications
• Preoperative Evaluation
• PRK Surgical Technique
• Results
• Complications
• Conclusions
• Key References
• References
• 3.4. Laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis (LASIK)
• Abstract
• What is Lasik?
• Indications
• General Principles
• Patient Selection
• Exclusion Criteria
• Patient Evaluation
• Surgical Technique
• Complications
• Outcomes
• Future Directions
• Considerations After Lasik
• Key References
• References
• 3.5. Small Incision Lenticule Extraction
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Femtosecond Laser System
• Treatment Range for Smile
• Patient Evaluation
• Surgical Procedure
• Complications
• Higher-Order Aberrations
• Biomechanical Stability
• Refractive and Visual Outcome
• Retreatments
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 3.6. Wavefront and Topography-Based Excimer Laser Refractive Surgery
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Lower- and Higher-Order Aberrations
• Wavefront Optics
• Measuring Wavefront Aberrations
• Wavefront-Optimized Treatments
• Wavefront-Guided Treatments
• Topography-Guided Treatments
• Conclusions
• Key References
• References
• 3.7. Phakic Intraocular Lenses
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Posterior Chamber
• IRIS Fixated
• Indications
• Advantages Over Keratorefractive Surgery
• Advantages Over Refractive Lens Exchange
• Preoperative Evaluation
• Surgical Technique
• Postoperative Evaluation
• Outcomes
• Potential Complications
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 3.8. Intrastromal Corneal Ring Segments: Synthetic and CAIRS
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Principle of Action
• Types of ICRS
• Indications for ICRS
• Contraindications for ICRS
• Surgical Techniques
• Nomograms, Incision Placements, and ICRS Selection
• Corneal Allogenic Intrastromal Ring Segments
• Complications
• ICRS With Corneal Cross-Linking
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 3.9. Surgical Treatment of Presbyopia
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Optical Considerations for Treating Presbyopia
• Surgical Procedures
• Key References
• References
• 3.10. Excimer Laser Phototherapeutic Keratectomy
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Indications and Contraindications
• Preoperative Evaluation
• Surgical Technique
• Postoperative Care
• Outcomes
• Complications
• Conclusions
• Key References
• References
• 3.11. Corneal Cross-linking
• Abstract
• Corneal Cross-Linking is a Photochemical Reaction
• Indication for CXL
• Biological Interactions and Morphological Changes in CXL
• Wound Healing and Keratocyte Cytotoxicity in CXL
• Creating Reactive Oxygen Species at Deeper Levels with CXL
• Biological Differences Associated with Changes in Irradiation Time in CXL
• Role of the Riboflavin Carrier in CXL
• The Role of LYSYL Oxidase Enzyme in the Biology of CXL
• CXL in Thin Corneas
• Photoactivated Chromophore Treatment for Corneal Cross-Linked Infectious Keratitis
• Corneal Cross-Linking Combined with Refractive Surgical Procedures
• Corneal Haze and Infiltrates After CXL
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• Part 4: Cornea and Ocular Surface Diseases
• Section 1: Basic Principles
• 4.1. Corneal Anatomy, Physiology, and Wound Healing
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Corneal Wound Healing
• Key References
• References
• 4.2. Anterior Segment Imaging Modalities
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Anterior Segment Optical Coherence Tomography
• Specular Microscopy
• Ultrasound Biomicroscopy
• Meibography
• In Vivo Confocal Microscopy
• Topography And Tomography
• Wavefront Analysis
• Summary
• Key References
• References
• Section 2: Congenital Abnormalities
• 4.3. Congenital Corneal Anomalies
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Size And Shape Anomalies
• Anomalies Of Corneal Clarity
• Acknowledgment
• Key References
• References
• Section 3: External Diseases
• 4.4. Blepharitis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology
• Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis And Ancillary Testing
• Treatment
• Key References
• References
• 4.5. Herpes Zoster Ophthalmicus
• Abstract
• Epidemiology And Pathogenesis
• Clinical Manifestations
• Herpes Zoster Ophthalmicus In Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
• Diagnosis
• Management
• Prevention
• Key References
• References
• Section 4: Conjunctival Diseases
• 4.6. Infectious Conjunctivitis
• Abstract
• Infectious Conjunctivitis
• Noninfectious Conjunctivitis
• Key References
• References
• 4.7. Allergic Conjunctivitis
• Abstract
• Acute Allergic Conjunctivitis: Seasonal/Perennial
• Chronic Atopic Keratoconjunctivitis
• Vernal Keratoconjunctivitis
• Treatment Of Allergic/Atopic Keratoconjunctivitis
• Allergic Dermatoconjunctivitis
• Microbial Allergic Conjunctivitis
• Giant Papillary Conjunctivitis
• Dupilumab-Associated Conjunctivitis
• Key References
• References
• 4.8. Tumors of the Conjunctiva
• Abstract
• Tumors of the Conjunctiva
• Ocular Surface Squamous Neoplasia
• Key References
• References
• 4.9. Pterygium and Conjunctival Degenerations
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Pinguecula
• Pterygium
• Senile Scleral Plaques
• Conjunctival Amyloid
• Conjunctival Melanosis
• Key References
• References
• 4.10. Ocular Cicatricial Pemphigoid/Mucous Membrane Pemphigoid
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Pathogenesis
• Clinical Findings
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• Section 5: Scleral and Episcleral Diseases
• 4.11. Episcleritis and Scleritis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Inflammatory Diseases
• Key References
• References
• Section 6: Corneal Diseases
• 4.12. Bacterial Keratitis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology And Pathogenesis
• Clinical Features
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 4.13. Fungal Keratitis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology And Pathogenesis
• Clinical Features
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 4.14. Parasitic Keratitis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Acanthamoeba Keratitis
• Microsporidiosis
• Onchocerciasis
• Key References
• References
• 4.15. Herpes Simplex Keratitis
• Abstract
• Epidemiology
• Herpes Simplex Virus
• Primary HSV Infection
• Recurrent HSV Infections
• Diagnosis
• Herpetic Eye Disease Study
• Treatment
• Future Directions
• Key References
• References
• 4.16. Peripheral Ulcerative Keratitis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Anatomy and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Systemic Associations
• Differential Diagnosis
• Diagnostic and Ancillary Testing
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 4.17. Noninfectious Keratitis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Thygeson’s Superficial Punctate Keratitis
• Superior Limbic Keratoconjunctivitis of Theodore
• Mooren’s Ulcer
• Neurotrophic Keratitis
• Terrien’s Marginal Degeneration
• Floppy Eyelid Syndrome, Eyelid Laxity And Palpebral Hypermobility Syndrome
• Treatment
• Keratopathy Associated With Antibody–Drug Conjugates
• Key References
• References
• 4.18. Keratoconus and Other Ectasias
• Abstract
• Keratoconus
• Keratoglobus
• Posterior Keratoconus
• Post–Refractive Surgery Corneal Ectasia
• Key References
• References
• 4.19. Anterior Corneal Dystrophies
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Anterior Basement Membrane Dystrophy
• Meesmann’s Epithelial Dystrophy
• Reis–Bückler Corneal Dystrophy
• Thiel–Behnke Corneal Dystrophy
• Key References
• References
• 4.20. Stromal Corneal Dystrophies
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Lattice Dystrophy Type I
• Systemic Amyloidosis With Corneal Lattice
• Granular Corneal Dystrophy Type I
• Granular Corneal Dystrophy Type 2
• Pathology
• Macular Corneal Dystrophy
• Schnyder’s Corneal Dystrophy
• Central Cloudy Dystrophy
• Fleck Corneal Dystrophy
• Posterior Amorphous Corneal Dystrophy
• Congenital Stromal Corneal Dystrophy
• Pre-Descemet’s Corneal Dystrophy
• Key References
• References
• 4.21. Diseases of the Corneal Endothelium
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Fuchs’ Dystrophy
• Congenital Hereditary Endothelial Dystrophy
• Posterior Polymorphous Corneal Dystrophy
• Key References
• References
• 4.22. Corneal Degenerations
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Corneal Arcus (Arcus Senilis)
• Lipid Keratopathy
• Vogt’s White Limbal Girdle
• Senile Corneal Furrow Degeneration
• Terrien’s Marginal Corneal Degeneration
• Peripheral Corneal Guttae
• Calcific Band Keratopathy
• Spheroidal Degeneration
• Iron Deposition
• Crocodile Shagreen
• Cornea Farinata
• Salzmann’s Corneal Degeneration
• Corneal Keloids
• Corneal Amyloid Degeneration
• Key References
• References
• 4.23. Dry Eye Disease
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology
• Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis And Ancillary Testing
• Treatment
• Key References
• References
• Section 7: Miscellaneous Conditions
• 4.24. Complications of Contact Lens Wear
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Toxic, Allergic, and Mechanical Reactions
• Conditions Reflecting Metabolic Challenge
• Corneal Inflammatory Events and Microbial Keratitis
• Unsupervised Lens Wear/Colored Cosmetic Contact Lenses
• FDA and CDC Recommendations
• Conclusions
• Key References
• References
• 4.25. Corneal and External Eye Manifestations of Systemic Disease
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Congenital Disorders
• Chromosomal Disorders
• Inherited Connective Tissue Disorders
• Metabolic Disorders
• Other Oculosystemic Disorders
• Conclusion
• Acknowledgment
• Key References
• References
• Section 8: Trauma
• 4.26. Acid and Alkali Burns
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Alkali Injuries
• Acid Injuries
• Pathophysiology
• Clinical Course
• Therapy
• Conclusion
• References
• Key References
• Section 9: Surgery
• 4.27. Endothelial Keratoplasty: Targeted Treatment for Corneal Endothelial Dysfunction
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Evolution Of EK Techniques
• Indications
• Surgical Technique
• Combined Procedures
• Outcomes
• Outlook
• Key References
• References
• 4.28. Penetrating Keratoplasty
• Abstract
• Keratoplasty
• Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 4.29. Anterior Lamellar Keratoplasty
• Abstract
• Historical Review
• Indications For Dalk
• Contraindications For Dalk
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 4.30. Superficial Corneal Procedures and Corneal Collagen Cross-linking
• Abstract
• Superficial Corneal Procedures
• Key References
• References
• 4.31. Artificial Cornea (Keratoprosthesis)
• Abstract
• Boston Keratoprosthesis Design
• Boston Kpro Type I
• Keratoprosthesis In End-Stage Ocular Surface Disease
• Newer Artificial Cornea Devices
• Key References
• References
• 4.32. Conjunctival Surgery
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Historical Review
• Anesthesia
• Key References
• References
• 4.33. Surgical Ocular Surface Reconstruction
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Historical Perspectives
• Preoperative Considerations
• Operative Procedures
• Special Considerations In Ocular Surface Reconstruction
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 4.34. Management of Corneal Thinning, Melting, and Perforation
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Corneal Thinning From Noninflammatory Disorders
• Corneal Thinning and Melting From Inflammatory Disorders
• Surgical Treatment of Corneal Perforations
• Conclusions
• Key References
• References
• Part 5: The Lens
• 5.1. Basic Science of the Lens
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Anatomy of the Lens
• Physiology of the Lens
• Biophysics
• Biochemistry
• Lens Crystallins
• Age Changes
• Secondary Cataract
• Key References
• References
• 5.2. Evolution of Intraocular Lens Implantation
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Lens Design and Fixation
• Recent Advances
• Key References
• References
• 5.3. Intraocular Lens Optics
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Monofocal Iols
• Toric Iols
• Presbyopia-Correcting Iols
• Key References
• References
• 5.4. Bag-in-the-Lens Cataract Surgery
• NON-PRINT ITEMAbstract
• Introducing a New Intraocular Lens Design that Eradicates Posterior Capsule Opacification
• New Insights About the Anatomy Behind the Crystalline Lens: The Anterior Interface
• Surgical Training
• The Toric Version of the Bil
• Pathophysiology of Implanted Bil Iols
• New Adds to Be Used in Difficult Cataract Surgery Procedures
• Postoperative Cystoid Macular Edema, Retinal Detachment, and Glaucoma After Bil
• Key References
• References
• 5.5. Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, Causes, Morphology, and Visual Effects of Cataract
• Abstract
• Epidemiology of Cataracts
• Pathophysiology of Cataracts
• Cataract Causes, Associations, and Prevention
• Prevention of Cataracts
• Morphology and Visual Effects of Cataract
• Visual Effects of Cataracts
• Anomalies of Lens Growth
• Key References
• References
• 5.6. Patient Workup for Cataract Surgery
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Medical History and Current Therapeutic Regimen
• General Ophthalmic History and Examination
• Assessment of Lens Opacities
• Investigations for Further Surgical Refinement
• Good Clinical Practice (Social and Legal Aspects)
• Key References
• References
• 5.7. Intraocular Lens Power Calculations
• Abstract
• Ocular Biometry
• Iol Power Formulas
• Iol Calculations in Special Eyes
• Toric Iol Calculation
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 5.8. Indications for Lens Surgery/Indications for Application of Different Lens Surgery Techniques
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Medical Indications for Lens Surgery
• Refractive Indications for Lens Surgery
• Indications for Different Lens Surgery Techniques
• Key References
• References
• 5.9. The Pharmacotherapy of Cataract Surgery
• Introduction
• Preoperative Medications
• Anesthetics
• Intraoperative Medications
• Ophthalmic Viscosurgical Devices
• Postoperative Medications
• Late Postoperative Medications
• Key References
• References
• 5.10. Anesthesia for Cataract Surgery
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Medical Aspects of Anesthesia for Cataract Surgery
• Local Anesthesia
• Sedative Agents
• Postoperative Care
• Key References
• References
• 5.11. Phacoemulsification Fluidics
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Handpieces and Tips
• Power Modulation
• Pumps and Fluidics
• Postocclusion Surge
• Key References
• References
• 5.12. Refractive Aspects of Cataract Surgery
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Preoperative Planning
• Intraoperative Techniques
• Toric Lenses
• Intraoperative Aberrometry and Heads-Up Technologies
• Postoperative Management of Residual Or Induced Corneal Astigmatism
• Post–Cataract Surgery Piggyback Iols
• Light-Adjustable Iol Implant
• IOL Explantation
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 5.13. Small-Incision and Femtosecond Laser-Assisted Cataract Surgery
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Incision Construction and Architecture
• Continuous Curvilinear Capsulorrhexis
• Hydrodissection and Hydrodelineation
• Nucleofractis Techniques
• Power Modulations
• Biaxial Microincision Cataract Surgery
• B-Mics Vertical Chop Technique
• Femtosecond Laser-Assisted Cataract Surgery
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 5.14. Capsulectomy: Modern Devices Apart From FLACS
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Selective Laser CAPSULECTOMY
• Precision Pulse CAPSULECTOMY
• Key References
• References
• 5.15. Manual Cataract Extraction
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Manual (Large-Incision) Cataract Surgery
• Intracapsular Cataract Extraction
• Extracapsular Cataract Extraction
• Complications
• Discussion
• Key References
• References
• 5.16. Combined Procedures
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Combined Glaucoma Surgery
• Lens Surgery Combined With Keratoplasty
• Combined Phacovitrectomy
• Key References
• References
• 5.17. Cataract Surgery in Complex Eyes
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Zonular Instability
• Uveitis
• Compromised Endothelium
• Key References
• References
• 5.18. Pediatric Cataract Surgery
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Preoperative Evaluation and Diagnostic Approach
• Alternatives to Surgery
• Anesthesia
• General Techniques and Considerations
• Specific Technique
• Choices for Aphakia Correction in Children
• Complications
• Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 5.19. Complications of Cataract Surgery
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Intraoperative Complications
• Postoperative Complications
• Key References
• References
• 5.20. Secondary Cataract
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Pathogenesis
• Treatment and Prevention
• Iols Maintaining the Capsular Bag Open Or Expanded
• Key References
• References
• 5.21. Outcomes of Cataract Surgery
• NON-PRINT ITEMAbstract
• Introduction
• Evaluation of Outcomes
• Five Parameters that Describe Visual Function
• Objective Findings of Cataract Surgery Outcomes
• Subjective Findings of Cataract Surgery Outcomes
• Cataract Surgery of One or Both Eyes
• Cataract Surgery in Eyes With Ocular Comorbidity
• Summary
• Key References
• References
• Part 6: Retina and Vitreous
• Section 1: Anatomy
• 6.1. Structure of the Neural Retina and Retinal Pigment Epithelium
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Center of the Macula: Umbo
• Foveola
• Fovea
• Parafovea
• Perifovea
• Macula, Or Central Area
• Extra-Areal Periphery
• Layers of the Neural Retina
• The Retinal Pigment Epithelium
• Key References
• References
• 6.2. Retinal and Choroidal Circulation
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Posterior Segment Vascular Anatomy
• Blood–Retinal Barrier
• Retinal and Choroidal Blood Flow
• Retina and Choroidal Circulation Evaluated by OCTA
• Regulation of Retinal and Choroidal Blood Flows
• Acknowledgment
• Key References
• References
• Section 2: Ancillary Tests
• 6.3. Contact B-Scan Ultrasonography
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Devices
• Technique of Examination
• Concepts of B-Scan Interpretation
• Display Presentation/Registration and Documentation
• Anterior Segment High-Frequency Ultrasonography
• Digital Contact Ultrasonography
• What’s New?
• Summary
• Key References
• References
• 6.4. Camera-Based Ancillary Retinal Testing: Autofluorescence, Fluorescein, and Indocyanine Green Angiography
• Abstract
• Fluorescein Angiography
• Interpretation of Results
• Indocyanine Green Angiography
• Fundus Autofluorescence
• Acknowledgments
• Key References
• References
• 6.5. Optical Coherence Tomography in Retinal Imaging
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Oct Technology Platforms
• Representation of Ocular Anatomy
• Image Optimization
• Oct Image Interpretation
• Key References
• References
• 6.6. Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Biological Basis of OCTA
• Octa Versus Dye-Based Angiography Methods
• Key Applications of OCTA
• Conclusions
• Key References
• References
• 6.7. Retinal Electrophysiology
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Full-Field ERG
• Multifocal ERG
• Electrooculography
• Key References
• References
• Section 3: Basic Principles of Retinal Surgery
• 6.8. Light and Laser Injury
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Light Interaction with the Retina
• Photic Retinopathy
• Light Exposure and Age-Related Macular Degeneration
• Laser Injury
• Laser Pointers
• Complications of Therapeutic Retinal Laser PhotocoAgulation
• Key References
• References
• 6.9. Scleral Buckling Surgery
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Historical Review
• Preoperative Evaluation and Diagnostic Approach
• Differential Diagnosis
• Alternatives to Scleral Buckling
• Anesthesia
• General Techniques
• Complications
• Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 6.10. Vitrectomy
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Historical Review
• Preoperative Evaluation and Diagnostic Approach
• Indications and Alternatives to Surgery
• Anesthesia
• General Techniques
• Specific Techniques
• Complications
• Outcomes
• Key References
• References
• 6.11. Intravitreal Injections and Medication Implants
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Preinjection Preparation
• Injection
• Postinjection
• Complications
• Other Considerations
• Implants
• Conclusions
• Key References
• References
• Section 4: Dystrophies
• 6.12. Progressive and “Stationary” Inherited Retinal Degenerations
• Abstract
• Progressive Diffuse/Panretinal Degenerations
• “Stationary” Retinal Disorders
• Female Carriers of X-Linked Retinal Degenerations
• Treatment of Retinal Degenerations
• Key References
• References
• 6.13. Inherited Retinal Diseases
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Macular Dystrophies
• Stargardt Disease, Fundus Flavimaculatus, and Stargardt-Like Diseases
• Best Vitelliform Macular Dystrophy Or Best Disease
• Pattern Dystrophies and Adult Vitelliform Macular Dystrophy/Adult-Onset Foveomacular Dystrophy
• Dominant Drusen/ Doyne’s Honeycomb Retinal Dystrophy/Malattia Leventinese
• Sorsby Fundus Dystrophy
• North Carolina Macular Dystrophy
• Central Areolar Choroidal Dystrophy
• Cone and Cone-Rod Dystrophies
• Chorioretinal Dystrophies
• Choroideremia
• Gyrate Atrophy
• Hereditary Vitreoretinopathies
• Stickler’s Syndrome
• X-Linked Juvenile Retinoschisis
• Autosomal Dominant Vitreoretinochoroidopathy
• Familial Exudative Vitreoretinopathy
• Norrie’s Disease
• Key References
• References
• Section 5: Vascular Disorders
• 6.14. Hypertensive Retinopathy
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Treatment and Future Directions
• Key References
• References
• 6.15. Retinal Arterial Obstruction
• Abstract
• Central Retinal Artery Obstruction
• Branch Retinal Artery Obstruction
• Key References
• References
• 6.16. Venous Occlusive Disease of the Retina
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology
• Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
• Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion
• Key References
• References
• 6.17. Retinopathy of Prematurity
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Pathogenesis
• Clinical Features and Classification
• Diagnosis and Screening
• Role of Telemedicine in ROP Screening
• Differential Diagnosis
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Ablation of Peripheral Avascular Retina
• Anti–Vegf Therapy in ROP Treatment
• Surgery in ROP Treatment
• Late Complications of ROP
• Key References
• References
• 6.18. Diabetic Retinopathy
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology
• Pathogenesis
• Classification of Diabetic Retinopathy
• Diabetic Macular Edema
• Other Ocular Manifestations of Diabetes
• Diagnostics and Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Screening
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 6.19. Ocular Ischemic Syndrome
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Pathology
• Treatment, Course, and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 6.20. Hemoglobinopathies
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 6.21. Coats’ Disease and Macular Telangiectasia
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Management of Coats’ Disease
• Complications of Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 6.22. Radiation Retinopathy and Papillopathy
• NON-PRINT ITEMAbstract
• Radiation Retinopathy
• Radiation Papillopathy
• Summary
• Key References
• References
• 6.23. Retinal Arterial Macroaneurysms
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Pathology
• Treatment, Course, and Outcome
• Summary
• Key References
• References
• Section 6: Macular Disorders
• 6.24. Age-Related Macular Degeneration
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology
• Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Pathology
• Natural History and Prognosis
• Treatment and Prevention
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 6.25. Secondary Causes of Choroidal Neovascularization
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Pathological Myopia
• Angioid Streaks
• Trauma
• Inflammatory Causes
• Other Causes
• Key References
• References
• 6.26. Central Serous Chorioretinopathy
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology
• Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 6.27. Full-Thickness Macular Hole
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 6.28. Epiretinal Membrane
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Course and Outcomes
• Key References
• References
• 6.29. Vitreomacular Traction
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Natural History of Vmt
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 6.30. Cystoid Macular Edema
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Pathogenesis and Etiology
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Treatment
• Conclusions
• Key References
• References
• Section 7: Retinal Detachment
• 6.31. Peripheral Retinal Lesions and Retinal Breaks
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology of Retinal Breaks
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Treatment of Retinal Breaks
• Course and Outcome
• Ocular Manifestations of Selected Other Peripheral Retinal Lesions
• Key References
• References
• 6.32. Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 6.33. Serous Detachments of the Neural Retina
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Pathophysiology
• Alterations in Choroidal Flow
• Poor Scleral Outflow
• Breakdown of the RPE and Retina
• Miscellaneous
• Diagnostic and Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 6.34. Suprachoroidal Hemorrhage
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Risk Factors
• Pathophysiology
• Clinical Manifestations
• Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Management
• Key references
• References
• 6.35. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• Section 8: Trauma
• 6.36. Posterior Segment Ocular Trauma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Ocular Manifestations and Clinical Examination
• Nonpenetrating Trauma
• Penetrating Trauma
• Intraocular Foreign Bodies
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 6.37. Distant Trauma With Posterior Segment Effects
• Abstract
• Terson’s Syndrome
• Purtscher Retinopathy
• Shaken Baby Syndrome
• Terson’s Syndrome
• Purtscher Retinopathy
• Shaken Baby Syndrome
• Miscellaneous Conditions
• Key References
• References
• 6.38. Retinal Toxicity of Systemically Administered Drugs
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine
• Pentosan
• Thioridazine
• Deferoxamine
• Didanosine
• Niacin
• Fingolimod
• Paclitaxel
• Thiazolidinediones
• Imatinib
• Canthaxanthin
• Tamoxifen
• Interferon
• Cisplatin and Carmustine
• Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Inhibitors and Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors
• Sildenafil and Tadalafil
• Key References
• References
• Part 7: Uveitis and Other Intraocular Inflammations
• Section 1: Basic Principles
• 7.1. Anatomy of the Uvea
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Iris
• Ciliary Body
• Choroid
• Key References
• References
• 7.2. General Approach to the Uveitis Patient and Treatment Strategies
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Classification
• Epidemiology
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• Section 2: Infectious Causes of Uveitis–Viral
• 7.3. Herpetic Viral Uveitis
• Abstract
• Herpes Simplex and Varicella Zoster
• Herpes Simples Virus and Varicella Zoster Virus
• Cytomegalovirus
• Epstein–Barr Virus
• Key References
• References
• 7.4. Nonherpetic Viral Infections: West Nile, Chikungunya, Zika, Ebola, HTLV-1, Measles, Rubella
• Abstract
• West Nile Virus
• Chikungunya
• Zika
• Ebola
• Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type I
• Measles Virus
• Rubella Virus
• Summary
• Key References
• References
• Section 3: Infectious Causes of Uveitis–Bacterial
• 7.5. Syphilitic and Other Spirochetal Uveitis
• Abstract
• Syphilitic Uveitis
• Lyme Disease
• Leptospirosis
• Key References
• References
• 7.6. Tuberculosis, Leprosy, and Brucellosis
• Abstract
• Tuberculosis
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Leprosy
• Epidemiology
• Systemic Manifestations and Pathogenesis of Ocular Disease
• Clinical Presentation
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Brucellosis
• Systemic Manifestations
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Acknowledgments
• Key References
• References
• 7.7. Bartonella-Related Infectious Uveitis (Cat Scratch Disease) and Whipple’s Disease
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Cat Scratch Disease: Bartonella Henselae–Associated Uveitis
• Whipple’s Disease: Tropheryma Whipplei–Associated Uveitis
• Key References
• References
• 7.8. Infectious Endophthalmitis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Risk Factors
• Key References
• References
• Section 4: Infectious Causes of Uveitis–Fungal
• 7.9. Histoplasmosis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 7.10. Fungal Endophthalmitis
• Abstract
• Candida
• Aspergillus
• Fusarium
• Coccidioides Immitis—Ocular Coccidioidomycosis
• Cryptococcal Endophthalmitis
• Histoplasma Endophthalmitis
• Key References
• References
• Section 5: Infectious Causes of Uveitis–Protozoal and Parasitic
• 7.11. Ocular Toxoplasmosis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Organism and Life Cycle
• Epidemiology
• Pathology and Pathogenesis
• Clinical Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Therapy
• Course and Prognosis
• Key References
• References
• 7.12. Posterior Parasitic Uveitis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Ocular Cysticercosis
• Ocular Toxocariasis
• Onchocerciasis
• Gnathostomiasis
• Diffuse Unilateral Subacute Neuroretinitis
• Amebiasis
• Giardiasis
• Malaria
• Leishmaniasis
• Pediatric Presumed Trematode Infection
• Ophthalmomyiasis
• Acknowledgments
• Key References
• References
• Section 6: Uveitis Associated with Systemic Disease
• 7.13. Uveitis Related to HLA-B27 and Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis–Associated Uveitis
• Abstract
• Uveitis Related to Hla-B27
• Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis–Associated Uveitis
• Uveitis Related to Hla-B27
• Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis
• Key References
• References
• 7.14. Sarcoidosis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Corse and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 7.15. Behçet’s Disease
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 7.16. Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada Disease
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• Section 7: Traumatic Uveitis
• 7.17. Phacogenic Uveitis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Key References
• References
• 7.18. Sympathetic Uveitis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Pathology
• Prevention
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• Section 8: Uveitis of Unknown Causes
• 7.19. Idiopathic and Other Anterior Uveitis Syndromes
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Infectious Anterior Uveitis
• Emerging Infectious Diseases
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Fuchs’ Heterochromic Iridocyclitis/Fuchs’ Uveitis Syndrome
• Posner–Schlossman Syndrome
• Drug-Induced Anterior Uveitis
• Schwartz–Matsuo Syndrome
• Ellingson Syndrome (Ugh Syndrome)
• Tattoo-Related Uveitis
• Non-Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis: Juvenile Xanthogranuloma and Rosai–Dorfman Disease
• Key References
• References
• 7.20. Pars Planitis and Other Intermediate Uveitides
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology
• Pathology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Complications
• Diagnosis
• Management
• Prognosis
• Key References
• References
• 7.21. Posterior Uveitis of Unknown Cause—White Spot Syndromes
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Birdshot Chorioretinopathy
• Placoid Diseases
• Multifocal Choroiditis/Punctate Inner Choroidopathy
• Multiple Evanescent White Dot Syndrome
• Key References
• References
• Section 9: Masquerade Syndromes
• 7.22. Masquerade Syndromes: Neoplasms
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Primary Neoplasms
• Secondary Neoplasms and Metastases
• Conclusions
• Key References
• References
• Part 8: Intraocular Tumors
• 8.1. Tumors of the Retina and Optic Disc
• Abstract
• Retinal Tumors
• Intraocular Retinoblastoma
• 2. Retinal Glial Tumors
• Optic Disc Tumors
• Key References
• References
• 8.2. Tumors of the Uvea
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Melanocytic Tumors of the Uvea
• Key References
• References
• 8.3. Tumors (Solid and Cystic) of the Pigmented and Nonpigmented Epithelium
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Cyst of the IRIS Pigment Epithelium
• Adenoma of the IRIS Pigment Epithelium
• Medulloepithelioma
• Adenoma of the Retinal Pigment Epithelium
• Solitary Congenital Hypertrophy of the Retinal Pigment Epithelium (CHRPE)
• Pigmented Ocular Fundus Lesions Associated with Familial Adenomatous Polyposis and Gardner Syndrome
• Unilateral Retinal Pigment Epithelial Dysgenesis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Congenital Simple Hamartoma of the Retinal Pigment Epithelium
• Torpedo Maculopathy
• Combined Hamartoma of the Retina and Retinal Pigment Epithelium
• Key References
• References
• 8.4. Phakomatoses
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Definition of Hamartia, Hamartoma, Chorista, Choristoma
• Neurofibromatosis
• Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (Bourneville Syndrome), Tuberous Sclerosis 1 (Omim #191100), Tuberous Sclerosis 2 (Omim #613254)
• Retinocerebellar Hemangiomatosis (Von Hippel–Lindau Syndrome) (Omim #193300)
• Encephalofacial Hemangiomatosis (Sturge–Weber Syndrome) (Omim #185300)
• Klippel–Trenaunay–Weber Syndrome (Angioosteohypertrophy Syndrome) (Omim #149000)
• Racemose Hemangiomatosis (Wyburn–Mason Syndrome) (Bonnet–Dechaume–Blanc Syndrome) (Omim Not Listed)
• Retinal Cavernous Hemangiomatosis (Omim #116860)
• Organoid Nevus Syndrome (Schimmelpenning–Feuerstein–Mims Syndrome) (Omim #163200)
• Oculo(Dermal) Melanocytosis (Nevus Fuscoceruleus Ophthalmomaxillaris) (Omim Not Listed)
• Phakomatosis Pigmentovascularis (Omim Not Listed)
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• Part 9: Neuro-Ophthalmology
• Section 1: Imaging in Neuro-Ophthalmology
• 9.1. Principles of Imaging in Neuro-ophthalmology
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Computed Tomography
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging
• Angiography
• Functional Imaging
• Imaging Strategies In Neuro-Ophthalmology
• Key References
• References
• 9.2. Optical Coherence Tomography in Neuro-ophthalmology
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Oct Interpretation
• Optic Disc Abnormalities Detectable Using OCT
• Neurodegenerative Diseases
• Alzheimer’s Disease
• Inflammatory Diseases
• Hereditary Optic Neuropathies
• Dominant Optic Atrophy
• Key References
• References
• Section 2: The Afferent Visual System
• 9.3. Anatomy and Physiology
• Abstract
• Historical Review
• General Anatomy
• Constituent Elements
• Four Portions of the Optic Nerve
• Circulation of the Optic Nerve
• Key References
• References
• 9.4. Differentiation of Optic Nerve From Macular Retinal Disease
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Ocular Features
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Key References
• References
• 9.5. Congenital Optic Disc Anomalies
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Optic Nerve Hypoplasia
• Morning Glory Disc Anomaly
• Optic Disc Coloboma
• Optic Pit
• Megalopapilla
• Congenital Tilted Disc Syndrome
• Congenital Optic Disc Pigmentation
• Aicardi Syndrome
• Key References
• References
• 9.6. Papilledema and Raised Intracranial Pressure
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Pathology
• Symptoms
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis and Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 9.7. Inflammatory Optic Neuropathies and Neuroretinitis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology And Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis And Ancillary Testing
• Diagnosis
• Association With Multiple Sclerosis
• Pathology
• Management
• Course and Outcome
• References
• Key References
• 9.8. Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
• Diabetic Papillopathy
• Key References
• References
• 9.9. Mitochondrial Optic Neuropathies
• Abstract
• Hereditary Optic Neuropathy
• Leber’s Hereditary Optic Neuropathy
• Dominant Optic Atrophy
• Nutritional And Toxic Optic Neuropathies
• Epidemiology And Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations (Eye Findings Similar To Lhon)
• Differential Diagnosis (Same As For Lhon)
• Key References
• References
• 9.10. Prechiasmal Pathways—Compression by Optic Nerve and Sheath Tumors
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology And Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis And Ancillary Testing
• Treatment
• Optic Nerve Compression By Optic Nerve And Sheath Tumors
• Gliomas And Malignant Gliomas
• Optic Nerve Sheath Meningiomas
• Epidemiology And Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Course And Outcome
• Other Intracanalicular And Intracranial Compressive Lesions
• Key References
• References
• 9.11. Traumatic Optic Neuropathies
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Key References
• References
• 9.12. Lesions of the Optic Chiasm, Parasellar Region, and Pituitary Fossa
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Pathology
• Treatment, Course, and Outcome
• Optic Gliomas
• Key References
• References
• 9.13. Lesions of Retrochiasmal Pathways, Higher Cortical Function, and Nonorganic Visual Loss
• Abstract
• Retrochiasmal Pathways And Higher Cortical Function
• Lateral Geniculate Bodies
• Optic Radiations
• Higher Cortical Function
• Topographical Diagnosis of Retrochiasmal Disease
• Cortical Representation of Vision
• Object Identification And Memory
• Reading And Dyslexia
• Color Perception
• Integration of Visual–Auditory Space
• Motion Detection
• Nonorganic Visual Loss
• Visual Snow Syndrome
• Key References
• References
• Section 3: The Efferent Visual System
• 9.14. Disorders of Supranuclear Control of Ocular Motility
• Introduction
• Anatomy of Eye Movement
• Diagnostic Testing
• Disorders of Supranuclear Ocular Motility
• Ocular Motility Disorders and the Cerebellum
• Ocular Motility Disorders and the Vestibular System
• Vergence Disorders
• Development of the Ocular Motor System
• Key References
• References
• 9.15. Nuclear and Fascicular Disorders of Eye Movement
• Introduction
• Epidemiology And Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Treatment, Course, And Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 9.16. Paresis of Isolated and Multiple Cranial Nerves and Painful Ophthalmoplegia
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Anatomy
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key References
• References
• 9.17. SECTION 3The Efferent Visual SystemDisorders of the Neuromuscular Junction
• Abstract
• Myasthenia Gravis
• Botulism
• Lambert–Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome
• Key References
• References
• 9.18 SECTION 3 The Efferent Visual System. Ocular Myopathies
• NON-PRINT ITEMAbstract
• Introduction
• Mitochondrial Myopathies
• Dystrophic Myopathies
• Inflammatory And Infiltrative Myopathies
• Key References
• References
• 9.19. Nystagmus, Saccadic Intrusions, and Oscillations
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology And Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key References
• References
• 9.20. Pupillary Signs of Neuro-ophthalmic Disease
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Relative Afferent Pupillary Defects
• Efferent Pupillary Defects
• Light-Near Dissociation
• Poor Pupil Dilation
• Retinal Origin Of The Pupil Light Reflex: The Melanopsin-Containing Retinal Ganglion Cell
• Key References
• References
• Section 4: The Brain
• 9.21. Headache and Facial Pain
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Differential Diagnosis Of Headache Syndromes
• Facial Pain
• Key References
• References
• 9.22. Tumors, Infections, Inflammations, and Neurodegenerations
• Abstract
• Tumors
• Infections
• Inflammations
• Neurodegenerations
• Key References
• References
• Section 5: Neuro-Ophthalmologic Emergencies
• 9.23. Urgent Neuro-ophthalmic Disorders
• Introduction
• Epidemiology And Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis And Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Course And Outcomes
• Key References
• References
• 9.24. Trauma, Drugs, and Toxins
• Abstract
• Trauma And The Brain
• Drugs, Toxins, And The Brain
• Key References
• References
• 9.25. Vascular Disorders
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Aneurysms
• Carotid–Cavernous Sinus Fistulas
• Transient Visual Loss
• Type Of Visual Loss
• Transient Isolated Bilateral Loss Of Vision
• Strokes
• Key References
• References
• 9.26. Electrophysiology
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Nonorganic Vision Loss
• Optic Nerve Disease
• Key References
• References
• Part 10: Glaucoma
• Section 1: Epidemiology and Mechanisms of Glaucoma
• 10.1. Epidemiology of Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Prevalence and Rates of Associated Blindness
• Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma
• Primary Angle-Closure Glaucoma
• Secondary Glaucomas
• Ocular Hypertension
• Glaucoma Suspects
• Key References
• References
• 10.2. Screening for Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Historical Review
• Purpose of the Test
• Utility of the Test and Interpretation of Results
• Procedure
• Complications
• Alternative Tests
• Future Direction of Glaucoma Screening
• Key References
• References
• 10.3. Mechanisms of Glaucoma
• Introduction
• Physiology of Aqueous Production
• The Aqueous Humor Outflow Pathway
• Pathophysiology of Glaucomatous Optic Neuropathy
• Central Visual Pathway Degeneration in Glaucoma
• Conclusions and Future Directions
• Acknowledgments
• Key References
• References
• Section 2: Evaluation and Diagnosis
• 10.4. Clinical Examination of Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Obtaining History
• Clinical Evaluation
• Clinical Examination
• Key References
• References
• 10.5. Visual Fields
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Platforms for Accessing Visual Fields
• Visual Field and Glaucoma Diagnosis
• Visual Field and Glaucoma Severity
• Visual Field and Assessing Progression in Glaucoma
• Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning
• Visual Fields in Community Screening and Telehealth
• References
• 10.6. Diagnostic Technologies
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Normal Anatomy
• Clinical Examination: Glaucomatous Features
• Imaging
• Optic Disc Photographs
• Confocal Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy
• Optical Coherence Tomography
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 10.7. Optic Nerve Blood Flow Measurement
• Abstract
• Statement of Disclosure
• Funding
• Introduction
• Applied Anatomy
• Physiology
• Experimental Investigations
• Clinical Studies
• Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography
• Retinal Oximetry
• Pharmacology
• Summary
• Key References
• References
• 10.8. Ocular Hypertension
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology
• Diagnosis
• Course and Outcome
• References
• Section 3: Specific Types of Glaucoma
• 10.9. Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Definition and Classification
• Intraocular Pressure, Risk Factors, and Aspects of Molecular Pathogenesis
• Diagnosis
• Nature of Progressive Visual Loss
• Treatment and Monitoring
• Key References
• References
• 10.10. Normal-Tension Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 10.11. Angle-Closure Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Management of Acute Angle Closure
• Management of Chronic Angle-Closure Glaucoma
• Management of Angle-Closure Glaucoma
• Prognosis
• Acknowledgments
• Key References
• References
• 10.12. Glaucoma Associated With (Pseudo)Exfoliation Syndrome
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Genetics
• Clinical Presentation and Ocular Manifestations
• Glaucoma in Exfoliation Syndrome
• Systemic Manifestations
• Differential Diagnosis
• Key References
• References
• 10.13. Pigmentary Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Differential Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 10.14. Neovascular Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Emerging Treatments
• Key References
• References
• 10.15. Inflammatory and Corticosteroid-Induced Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Pathophysiology
• Mechanisms of Elevated Iop
• Principles of Management
• Uveitis
• Glaucoma
• Specific Entities
• Key References
• References
• 10.16. Glaucoma Associated With Ocular Trauma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Immediate or Early-Onset Glaucoma After Ocular Trauma
• Late-Onset Glaucoma After Ocular Trauma
• Key References
• References
• 10.17. Glaucoma With Elevated Episcleral Venous Pressure
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Systemic Associations
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 10.18. Malignant Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Key References
• References
• 10.19. Glaucomas Secondary to Abnormalities of the Cornea, Iris, Retina, and Intraocular Tumors
• Abstract
• Ghost Cell Hemolytic Glaucoma
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Schwartz–Matsuo Syndrome
• Iridocorneal Endothelial Syndrome
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Axenfeld–Rieger Syndrome
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Systemic Associations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Epithelial Downgrowth and Fibrous Ingrowth (Proliferation)
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Aniridia
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Systemic Associations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Tumors and Glaucoma
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Penetrating Keratoplasty
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Treatment
• Alkali Chemical Trauma
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Key References
• References
• 10.20. Congenital Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
• Ocular Manifestations
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing
• Differential Diagnosis
• Classification Schemes
• Pathology
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• Section 4: Therapy
• 10.21. When to Treat Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Analysis of Risk Factors
• Risk Factors
• Principles of Initiation of therapy
• Initiation of Therapy in the Patient with Glaucoma
• Initiation of Therapy in the Glaucoma Suspect
• Artificial Intelligence
• Conclusions
• Key References
• References
• 10.22. Current Medical Management of Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Drugs that Decrease Aqueous Production
• Drugs that Increase Aqueous Outflow
• Fixed Combination Medications
• The Medical Armamentarium for Glaucoma Treatment
• Key References
• References
• 10.23. Laser Trabeculoplasty and Laser Peripheral Iridectomy
• Abstract
• Laser Trabeculoplasty
• Laser Peripheral Iridectomy
• Laser Iridoplasty
• Key References
• References
• 10.24. Cyclodestructive Procedures in Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Historical Review
• Preoperative Evaluation and Diagnostic Approach
• Mechanism of Action
• Alternatives to Cyclodestruction
• Anesthesia
• Specific Techniques
• Endoscopic Laser Cyclophotocoagulation
• Complications
• Outcomes
• Key References
• References
• 10.25. Goniotomy and Trabeculotomy
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Indications
• Preoperative Care
• Examination Under Anesthesia
• Instruments
• Procedures
• Postoperative Care
• Results
• Complications
• Key References
• References
• 10.26. Microinvasive Glaucoma Surgeries
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Patient Selection
• Options
• Endoscopic Laser Photocoagulation
• Subconjunctival Microshunts
• Innfocus/Preserflo Microshunt
• Suprachoroidal Drainage Devices
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 10.27. Trabeculectomy
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Indications
• Surgical Planning
• Preoperative Factors to Consider
• Patient Counseling
• Surgical Techniques
• Postoperative Care
• Conclusions
• Key References
• References
• 10.28. Antifibrotic Agents in Glaucoma Surgery
• Abstract
• Types of Antifibrotic Agent
• Indications for Antimetabolite Use
• Application Techniques
• Position of Drainage Area Under Eyelid
• Closure of Scleral Flap and Associated Surgical Techniques
• Postoperative Injections
• Complications
• Future Strategies to Prevent Fibrosis
• Key References
• References
• 10.29. Drainage Implants
• Abstract
• Historical Perspective
• Basic Concept
• Indications
• Preoperative Considerations
• Implant Selection
• Surgical Technique
• Postoperative Management
• Complications
• Evidence from Randomized Clinical Trials
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• 10.30. Complications of Glaucoma Surgery and Their Management
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Trabeculectomy
• Glaucoma Drainage Implants
• Key References
• References
• 10.31. Genes Associated With Human Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Congenital Glaucoma
• Developmental Glaucoma
• Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma: Juvenile Onset
• Pigment Dispersion Syndrome and Glaucoma
• Adult-Onset Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma
• Normal-Tension Glaucoma
• Exfoliation Syndrome and Glaucoma
• Angle-Closure Glaucoma
• Key References
• References
• 10.32. Evidence-Based Medicine in Glaucoma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Peer-Reviewed Articles Comprise Evidence-Based Medicine
• Evaluation of Diagnostic Testing in Glaucoma
• Examples of Evidence-Based Medicine in Glaucoma Therapy
• Barriers to the Practice of Evidence-Based Medicine
• Future Directions
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• Part 11: Pediatric and Adult Strabismus
• Section 1: Basic Science
• 11.1. Anatomy and Physiology of the Extraocular Muscles and Surrounding Tissues
• Abstract
• Embryology
• General Structure of Extraocular Muscles
• Gross Anatomy of the Extraocular Muscles
• The Orbital Infrastructure and Anatomy
• Clinical Correlates
• Extraocular Muscle Physiology
• Key References
• References
• Section 2: Evaluation and Diagnosis
• 11.2. Evaluating Vision in Preverbal and Preliterate Infants and Children
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Historical and Observational Techniques
• Fixation Targets
• Optokinetic Nystagmus
• Visual Evoked Potentials
• Forced-Choice Preferential Looking
• Graded Optotypes
• Maturation of Visual Acuity
• Key References
• References
• 11.3. Examination of Ocular Alignment and Eye Movements
• Abstract
• Evaluation of Ocular Alignment
• Eye Movement Examinations
• Key References
• References
• 11.4. Sensory Status in Strabismus
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Retinal Elements
• Sensory Fusion
• Motor Fusion
• Stereopsis
• Clinical Testing of Binocular Vision
• Testing for Sensory Fusion
• Testing for Motor Fusion
• Stereopsis Tests
• Retinal Correspondence Testing
• Key References
• References
• 11.5. Sensory Adaptations in Strabismus
• Abstract
• Diplopia and Visual Confusion
• Suppression and Anomalous Retinal Correspondence
• Monofixation Syndrome
• Key References
• References
• Section 3: Ocular Manifestations
• 11.6. Esotropia
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Infantile Esotropia
• Accommodative Esotropia
• Cyclic Esotropia
• Möbius’ (Or Moebius) Sequence
• Duane’s Syndrome
• Strabismus Fixus
• Esotropia in the Neurologically Impaired
• Esotropia Associated With Visual Deficit (Sensory Esotropia)
• “Heavy Eye Syndrome” and “Sagging Eye Syndrome”
• Key References
• References
• 11.7. Exotropia
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology and Pathogenesis of Intermittent Exotropia
• Ocular Manifestations of Intermittent Exotropia
• Diagnosis and Ancillary Testing for Exotropia
• Differential Diagnosis
• Treatment
• Course and Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 11.8. Torsional Strabismus
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Clinical Observations
• Etiology
• Management
• Summary
• Key References
• References
• 11.9. Paralytic Strabismus
• NON-PRINT ITEMAbstract
• Introduction
• Third Nerve Palsy (Oculomotor)
• Fourth Nerve Palsy (Trochlear)
• Sixth Nerve Palsy
• Summary
• Key References
• References
• 11.10. Other Vertical Strabismus Forms
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Dissociated Vertical Divergence
• Primary Inferior Oblique Muscle Overaction
• Monocular Elevation Deficiency (Previously Termed Double Elevator Palsy)
• Brown’s Syndrome
• Congenital Fibrosis
• Fractures of the Orbital Floor
• Graves’ Ophthalmopathy (Dysthyroid Orbitopathy)
• Heavy Eye Syndrome
• Key References
• References
• 11.11. Amblyopia
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Pathophysiology of Amblyopia
• Screening and Diagnosis
• Traditional Treatments
• Adherence
• Paradigm Shifts in Amblyopia
• Knock-On Effects of Amblyopia
• What’s on the Horizon?
• Key References
• References
• Section 4: Treatment
• 11.12. Forms of Nonsurgical Strabismus Management
• Abstract
• Orthoptics
• Prisms
• Botulinum Toxin
• New Medications
• Occlusion
• Key References
• References
• 11.13. Techniques of Strabismus Surgery
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Historical Review
• Preoperative Evaluation and Diagnostic Approach
• Anesthesia
• Visualization
• General Techniques
• Specific Techniques
• Complications
• Muscle Rupture or Pulled-In-Two Syndrome
• Outcomes
• Key References
• References
• Part 12: Orbit and Oculoplastics
• Section 1: Orbital Anatomy and Imaging
• 12.1. Clinical Anatomy of the Eyelids
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Anatomy of the Eyelids
• Key References
• References
• 12.2. Clinical Anatomy of the Orbit
• Abstract
• Introduction
• General Organization
• Osteology of the Orbit
• Connective Tissue System
• Muscles of Ocular Motility
• Motor Nerves of the Orbit
• Sensory Nerves of the Orbit
• Arterial Supply to the Orbit
• Venous Drainage from the Orbit
• Key References
• References
• 12.3. Orbital Imaging
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Normal Orbital Anatomy in the Axial Plane
• Normal Orbital Anatomy in the Coronal Plane
• Key References
• References
• Section 2: Eyelids
• 12.4. Blepharoptosis
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Foundation: A Simplified Classification of Ptosis
• Differential Diagnosis
• Clinical Evaluation and Preoperative Considerations
• Surgical Correction of Ptosis
• Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 12.5. Entropion
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Preoperative Evaluation and Diagnostic Approach
• Differential Diagnosis
• Alternatives to Surgery
• Quickert Everting Sutures
• Anesthesia
• General Technique
• Specific Techniques
• Lateral Tarsal Strip Procedure
• Complications
• Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 12.6. Ectropion
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Preoperative Evaluation and Diagnostic Approach
• Differential Diagnosis
• Alternatives to Surgery
• Anesthesia
• General Techniques
• Specific Techniques
• Complications
• Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 12.7. Benign Eyelid Lesions
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epithelial Tumors
• Adnexal Tumors
• Vascular Tumors
• Tumors of Neural Origin
• Xanthomatous Lesions
• Pigmented Lesions of Melanocytic Origin
• Inflammatory Lesions
• Infectious Lesions
• Conclusion
• Outcomes
• Key References
• References
• 12.8. Eyelid Malignancies
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Basal Cell Carcinoma
• Squamous Cell Carcinoma
• Sebaceous Gland Carcinoma
• Malignant Melanoma
• Key References
• References
• 12.9. Evaluation and Management of Periorbital Soft Tissue Trauma
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Preoperative Evaluation and Diagnostic Approach
• Anesthesia
• Treatment
• Common Patterns of Eyelid Injury
• Conclusions
• Key References
• References
• Section 3: Orbit and Lacrimal Gland
• 12.10. Orbital Diseases
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Metastatic Tumors
• Lacrimal Gland Lesions
• Mesenchymal Tumors
• Neurogenic Tumors
• Lymphoproliferative Diseases
• Histiocytic Tumors
• Inflammation and Infections
• Thyroid Eye Disease
• Cystic Lesions
• Vascular Neoplastic and Structural Lesions
• Secondary Tumors
• Key References
• References
• 12.11. Enucleation, Evisceration, and Exenteration
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Preoperative Evaluation and Diagnostic Approach
• Anesthesia
• Specific Techniques
• Complications
• Key References
• References
• 12.12. The Lacrimal Drainage System
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Anatomy and Physiology
• Evaluation of Epiphora
• Obstructions of the Lacrimal Sac and Duct
• Treatment of Lacrimal Sac and Duct Obstruction
• Tumors of the Lacrimal Sac
• Diseases of the Canaliculi
• Punctal Stenosis
• Useful Lacrimal Tips
• Key References
• References
• 12.13. Thyroid Eye Disease
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Associated Conditions
• Pathogenesis
• Clinical Presentation: Disease Severity and Activity
• Diagnosis
• Evaluation of Disease Severity and Activity
• Quality of Life
• Basic Management
• Medical Therapy
• Orbital Radiotherapy
• Surgical Therapy
• Management Plan Using the Visa Classification
• Key References
• References
• 12.14. Orbital Infection and Inflammation
• Abstract
• Introduction
• General Assessment
• Key References
• References
• Section 4: Periorbital Aesthetic Procedures
• 12.15. Cosmetic Blepharoplasty and Browplasty
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Anatomical Considerations
• Blepharoplasty
• Brow Malposition
• Outcome
• Key References
• References
• 12.16. Aesthetic Fillers and Botulinum Toxin for Wrinkle Reduction
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Approach to Periorbital Rejuvenation
• Anatomical Considerations
• The Brow and Temple
• The Eye
• Adjunctive Therapies
• Precautions
• Conclusion
• Key References
• References
• Index
• Confidence is ClinicalKey