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• Preface
• How To Use This Book
• Part I, Getting Started with Python
• Part II, Core Python Language and Built-ins
• Part III, Python Library and Extension Modules
• Part IV, Network and Web Programming
• Part V, Extending, Distributing, and Version Upgrade and Migration
• Conventions Used in This Book
• Reference Conventions
• Version Conventions
• Typographic Conventions
• Using Code Examples
• O’Reilly Online Learning
• How to Contact Us
• Acknowledgments
• 1. Introduction to Python
• The Python Language
• The Python Standard Library and Extension Modules
• Python Implementations
• CPython
• PyPy
• Choosing Between CPython, PyPy, and Other Implementations
• Other Developments, Implementations, and Distributions
• Licensing and Price Issues
• Python Development and Versions
• Python Resources
• Documentation
• Community
• Installation
• Installing Python from Binaries
• Installing Python from Source Code
• Microsoft Windows
• Unix-Like Platforms
• 2. The Python Interpreter
• The python Program
• Environment Variables
• Command-Line Syntax and Options
• The Windows py Launcher
• The PyPy Interpreter
• Interactive Sessions
• Python Development Environments
• IDLE
• Other Python IDEs
• Free Text Editors with Python Support
• Tools for Checking Python Programs
• Running Python Programs
• Running Python in the Browser
• PyScript
• Jupyter
• 3. The Python Language
• Lexical Structure
• Lines and Indentation
• Character Sets
• Tokens
• Statements
• Data Types
• Numbers
• Sequences
• Sets
• Dictionaries
• None
• Ellipsis (…)
• Callables
• Boolean Values
• Variables and Other References
• Variables
• Assignment Statements
• del Statements
• Expressions and Operators
• Comparison Chaining
• Short-Circuiting Operators
• Assignment Expressions
• Numeric Operations
• Numeric Conversions
• Arithmetic Operations
• Bitwise Operations on Integers
• Sequence Operations
• Sequences in General
• Strings
• Tuples
• Lists
• Set Operations
• Set Membership
• Set Methods
• Dictionary Operations
• Dictionary Membership
• Indexing a Dictionary
• Dictionary Methods
• Control Flow Statements
• The if Statement
• The match Statement
• The while Statement
• The for Statement
• The break Statement
• The continue Statement
• The else Clause on Loop Statements
• The pass Statement
• The try and raise Statements
• The with Statement
• Functions
• Defining Functions: The def Statement
• Parameters
• Attributes of Function Objects
• Function Annotations
• The return Statement
• Calling Functions
• Namespaces
• lambda Expressions
• Generators
• Recursion
• 4. Object-Oriented Python
• Classes and Instances
• Python Classes
• The class Statement
• The Class Body
• Descriptors
• Instances
• Attribute Reference Basics
• Bound and Unbound Methods
• Inheritance
• The Built-in object Type
• Class-Level Methods
• Properties
• __slots__
• __getattribute__
• Per Instance Methods
• Inheritance from Built-in Types
• Special Methods
• General-Purpose Special Methods
• Special Methods for Containers
• Abstract Base Classes
• Special Methods for Numeric Objects
• Decorators
• Metaclasses
• Alternatives to Custom Metaclasses for Simple Class Customization
• How Python Determines a Class’s Metaclass
• How a Metaclass Creates a Class
• Data Classes
• Enumerated Types (Enums)
• 5. Type Annotations
• History
• Type-Checking Utilities
• mypy
• Other Type Checkers
• Type Annotation Syntax
• The typing Module
• Types
• Type Expression Parameters
• Abstract Base Classes
• Protocols
• Utilities and Decorators
• Defining Custom Types
• Using Type Annotations at Runtime
• How to Add Type Annotations to Your Code
• Adding Type Annotations to New Code
• Adding Type Annotations to Existing Code (Gradual Typing)
• Using .pyi Stub Files
• Summary
• 6. Exceptions
• The try Statement
• try/except
• try/finally
• try/except/finally
• The raise Statement
• The with Statement and Context Managers
• Generators and Exceptions
• Exception Propagation
• Exception Objects
• The Hierarchy of Standard Exceptions
• Standard Exception Classes
• Custom Exception Classes
• Custom Exceptions and Multiple Inheritance
• Other Exceptions Used in the Standard Library
• ExceptionGroup and except*
• Error-Checking Strategies
• LBYL Versus EAFP
• Handling Errors in Large Programs
• Logging Errors
• The assert Statement
• 7. Modules and Packages
• Module Objects
• The import Statement
• The from Statement
• Module Loading
• Built-in Modules
• Searching the Filesystem for a Module
• The Main Program
• Reloading Modules
• Circular Imports
• Custom Importers
• Packages
• Special Attributes of Package Objects
• Absolute Versus Relative Imports
• Distribution Utilities (distutils) and setuptools
• Python Environments
• Enter the Virtual Environment
• What Is a Virtual Environment?
• Creating and Deleting Virtual Environments
• Working with Virtual Environments
• Managing Dependency Requirements
• Other Environment Management Solutions
• Best Practices with Virtualenvs
• 8. Core Built-ins and Standard Library Modules
• Built-in Types
• Built-in Functions
• The sys Module
• The copy Module
• The collections Module
• ChainMap
• Counter
• OrderedDict
• defaultdict
• deque
• The functools Module
• The heapq Module
• The Decorate–Sort–Undecorate Idiom
• The argparse Module
• The itertools Module
• 9. Strings and Things
• Methods of String Objects
• The string Module
• String Formatting
• Formatted String Literals (F-Strings)
• Formatting Using format Calls
• Value Conversion
• Value Formatting: The Format Specifier
• Nested Format Specifications
• Formatting of User-Coded Classes
• Legacy String Formatting with %
• Format Specifier Syntax
• Text Wrapping and Filling
• The pprint Module
• The reprlib Module
• Unicode
• The codecs Module
• The unicodedata Module
• 10. Regular Expressions
• Regular Expressions and the re Module
• REs and bytes Versus str
• Pattern String Syntax
• Common Regular Expression Idioms
• Sets of Characters
• Alternatives
• Groups
• Optional Flags
• Match Versus Search
• Anchoring at String Start and End
• Regular Expression Objects
• Match Objects
• Functions of the re Module
• REs and the := Operator
• The Third-Party regex Module
• 11. File and Text Operations
• The io Module
• Creating a File Object with open
• Attributes and Methods of File Objects
• Iteration on File Objects
• File-Like Objects and Polymorphism
• The tempfile Module
• Auxiliary Modules for File I/O
• The fileinput Module
• The struct Module
• In-Memory Files: io.StringIO and io.BytesIO
• Archived and Compressed Files
• The tarfile Module
• The zipfile Module
• The os Module
• Filesystem Operations
• The os.path Module
• OSError Exceptions
• The errno Module
• The pathlib Module
• The stat Module
• The filecmp Module
• The fnmatch Module
• The glob Module
• The shutil Module
• Text Input and Output
• Standard Output and Standard Error
• The print Function
• Standard Input
• The getpass Module
• Richer-Text I/O
• The readline Module
• Console I/O
• Internationalization
• The locale Module
• The gettext Module
• More Internationalization Resources
• 12. Persistence and Databases
• Serialization
• The csv Module
• The json Module
• The pickle Module
• The shelve Module
• DBM Modules
• The dbm Package
• Examples of DBM-Like File Use
• The Python Database API (DBAPI)
• Exception Classes
• Thread Safety
• Parameter Style
• Factory Functions
• Type Description Attributes
• The connect Function
• Connection Objects
• Cursor Objects
• DBAPI-Compliant Modules
• SQLite
• 13. Time Operations
• The time Module
• The datetime Module
• The date Class
• The time Class
• The datetime Class
• The timedelta Class
• The tzinfo Abstract Class
• The timezone Class
• The zoneinfo Module
• The dateutil Module
• The sched Module
• The calendar Module
• 14. Customizing Execution
• Per-Site Customization
• Termination Functions
• Dynamic Execution and exec
• Avoiding exec
• Expressions
• compile and Code Objects
• Never exec or eval Untrusted Code
• Internal Types
• Type Objects
• The Code Object Type
• The Frame Type
• Garbage Collection
• The gc Module
• The weakref Module
• 15. Concurrency: Threads and Processes
• Threads in Python
• The threading Module
• Thread Objects
• Thread Synchronization Objects
• Thread Local Storage
• The queue Module
• The multiprocessing Module
• Differences Between multiprocessing and threading
• Sharing State: Classes Value, Array, and Manager
• Process Pools
• The concurrent.futures Module
• Threaded Program Architecture
• Process Environment
• Running Other Programs
• Using the Subprocess Module
• Running Other Programs with the os Module
• The mmap Module
• Methods of mmap Objects
• Using mmap Objects for IPC
• 16. Numeric Processing
• Floating-Point Values
• The math and cmath Modules
• The statistics Module
• The operator Module
• Random and Pseudorandom Numbers
• The random Module
• Crypto-Quality Random Numbers: The secrets Module
• The fractions Module
• The decimal Module
• Array Processing
• The array Module
• Extensions for Numeric Array Computation
• 17. Testing, Debugging, and Optimizing
• Testing
• Unit Testing and System Testing
• The doctest Module
• The unittest Module
• Testing with nose2
• Testing with pytest
• Debugging
• Before You Debug
• The inspect Module
• The traceback Module
• The pdb Module
• Other Debugging Modules
• The warnings Module
• Classes
• Objects
• Filters
• Functions
• Optimization
• Developing a Fast-Enough Python Application
• Benchmarking
• Large-Scale Optimization
• Profiling
• Small-Scale Optimization
• 18. Networking Basics
• The Berkeley Socket Interface
• Socket Addresses
• Client/Server Computing
• The socket Module
• Socket Objects
• A Connectionless Socket Client
• A Connectionless Socket Server
• A Connection-Oriented Socket Client
• A Connection-Oriented Socket Server
• Transport Layer Security
• SSLContext
• 19. Client-Side Network Protocol Modules
• Email Protocols
• The poplib Module
• The smtplib Module
• HTTP and URL Clients
• URL Access
• The urllib Package
• The Third-Party requests Package
• Other Network Protocols
• 20. Serving HTTP
• http.server
• WSGI
• WSGI Servers
• ASGI
• Python Web Frameworks
• “Full-Stack” Versus “Lightweight” Frameworks
• A Few Popular Full-Stack Frameworks
• Considerations When Using Lightweight Frameworks
• A Few Popular Lightweight Frameworks
• 21. Email, MIME, and Other Network Encodings
• MIME and Email Format Handling
• Functions in the email Package
• The email.message Module
• The email.Generator Module
• Creating Messages
• The email.encoders Module
• The email.utils Module
• Example Uses of the email Package
• Encoding Binary Data as ASCII Text
• The base64 Module
• The quopri Module
• The uu Module
• 22. Structured Text: HTML
• The html.entities Module
• The BeautifulSoup Third-Party Package
• The BeautifulSoup Class
• The Navigable Classes of bs4
• bs4 find… Methods (aka Search Methods)
• bs4 CSS Selectors
• An HTML Parsing Example with BeautifulSoup
• Generating HTML
• Editing and Creating HTML with bs4
• Building HTML with bs4
• Templating
• The jinja2 Package
• 23. Structured Text: XML
• ElementTree
• The Element Class
• The ElementTree Class
• Functions in the ElementTree Module
• Parsing XML with ElementTree.parse
• Selecting Elements from an ElementTree
• Editing an ElementTree
• Building an ElementTree from Scratch
• Parsing XML Iteratively
• 24. Packaging Programs and Extensions
• What We Don’t Cover in This Chapter
• A Brief History of Python Packaging
• Online Material
• 25. Extending and Embedding Classic Python
• Online Material
• 26. v3.7 to v3.n Migration
• Significant Changes in Python Through 3.11
• Planning a Python Version Upgrade
• Choosing a Target Version
• Scoping the Work
• Applying the Code Changes
• Upgrade Automation Using pyupgrade
• Multiversion Testing
• Use a Controlled Deployment Process
• How Often Should You Upgrade?
• Summary
• Appendix. New Features and Changes in Python 3.7 Through 3.11
• Python 3.7
• Python 3.8
• Python 3.9
• Python 3.10
• Python 3.11
• Index
• About the Authors