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• Title Page
• Copyright
• About The Authors
• Detailed Contents
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Chapter 1. A Preview of Cell Biology
• 1.1 The Cell Theory: A Brief History
• Advances in Microscopy Allowed Detailed Studies of Cells
• The Cell Theory Applies to All Organisms
• 1.2 The Emergence of Modern Cell Biology
• The Cytological Strand Deals with Cellular Structure
• The Biochemical Strand Concerns the Chemistry of Biological Structure and Function
• The Genetic Strand Focuses on Information Flow
• 1.3 How Do We Know What We Know?
• Biological “Facts” May Turn Out to Be Incorrect
• Experiments Test Specific Hypotheses
• Model Organisms Play a Key Role in Modern Cell Biology Research
• Well-Designed Experiments Alter Only One Variable at a Time
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Using Immunofluorescence to Identify Specific Cell Components
• Human Connections: The Immortal Cells of Henrietta Lacks
• Chapter 2. The Chemistry of the Cell
• 2.1 The Importance of Carbon
• Carbon-Containing Molecules Are Stable
• Carbon-Containing Molecules Are Diverse
• Carbon-Containing Molecules Can Form Stereoisomers
• 2.2 The Importance of Water
• Water Molecules Are Polar
• Water Molecules Are Cohesive
• Water Has a High Temperature-Stabilizing Capacity
• Water Is an Excellent Solvent
• 2.3 The Importance of Selectively Permeable Membranes
• A Membrane Is a Lipid Bilayer with Proteins Embedded in It
• Lipid Bilayers Are Selectively Permeable
• 2.4 The Importance of Synthesis by Polymerization
• Macromolecules Are Critical for Cellular Form and Function
• Cells Contain Three Different Kinds of Macromolecular Polymers
• Macromolecules Are Synthesized by Stepwise Polymerization of Monomers
• 2.5 The Importance of Self-Assembly
• Noncovalent Bonds and Interactions Are Important in the Folding of Macromolecules
• Many Proteins Spontaneously Fold into Their Biologically Functional State
• Molecular Chaperones Assist the Assembly of Some Proteins
• Self-Assembly Also Occurs in Other Cellular Structures
• The Tobacco Mosaic Virus Is a Case Study in Self-Assembly
• Self-Assembly Has Limits
• Hierarchical Assembly Provides Advantages for the Cell
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Determining the Chemical Fingerprint of a Cell Using Mass Spectrometry
• Human Connections: Taking a Deeper Look: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
• Chapter 3. The Macromolecules of the Cell
• 3.1 Proteins
• The Monomers Are Amino Acids
• The Polymers Are Polypeptides and Proteins
• Several Kinds of Bonds and Interactions Are Important in Protein Folding and Stability
• Protein Structure Depends on Amino Acid Sequence and Interactions
• 3.2 Nucleic Acids
• The Monomers Are Nucleotides
• The Polymers Are DNA and RNA
• A DNA Molecule Is a Double-Stranded Helix
• 3.3 Polysaccharides
• The Monomers Are Monosaccharides
• The Polymers Are Storage and Structural Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharide Structure Depends on the Kinds of Glycosidic Bonds Involved
• 3.4 Lipids
• Fatty Acids Are the Building Blocks of Several Classes of Lipids
• Triacylglycerols Are Storage Lipids
• Phospholipids Are Important in Membrane Structure
• Glycolipids Are Specialized Membrane Components
• Steroids Are Lipids with a Variety of Functions
• Terpenes Are Formed from Isoprene
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Human Connections: Aggregated Proteins and Alzheimer’s
• Key Technique: Using X-Ray Crystallography to Determine Protein Structure
• Chapter 4. Cells and Organelles
• 4.1 The Origins of the First Cells
• Simple Organic Molecules May Have Formed Abiotically in the Young Earth
• RNA May Have Been the First Informational Molecule
• Liposomes May Have Defined the First Primitive Protocells
• 4.2 Basic Properties of Cells
• The Three Domains of Life Are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes
• There Are Several Limitations on Cell Size
• Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes Differ from Each Other in Many Ways
• 4.3 The Eukaryotic Cell in Overview: Structure and Function
• The Plasma Membrane Defines Cell Boundaries and Retains Contents
• The Nucleus Is the Information Center of the Eukaryotic Cell
• Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Provide Energy for the Cell
• The Endosymbiont Theory Proposes That Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Were Derived from Bacteria
• The Endomembrane System Synthesizes Proteins for a Variety of Cellular Destinations
• Other Organelles Also Have Specific Functions
• Ribosomes Synthesize Proteins in the Cytoplasm
• The Cytoskeleton Provides Structure to the Cytoplasm
• The Extracellular Matrix and Cell Walls Are Outside the Plasma Membrane
• 4.4 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions: Agents That Invade Cells
• A Virus Consists of a DNA or RNA Core Surrounded by a Protein Coat
• Viroids Are Small, Circular RNA Molecules That Can Cause Plant Diseases
• Prions Are Infectious Protein Molecules
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Human Connections: When Cellular “Breakdown” Breaks Down
• Key Technique: Using Centrifugation to Isolate Organelles
• Chapter 5. Bioenergetics: The Flow of Energy in the Cell
• 5.1 The Importance of Energy
• Cells Need Energy to Perform Six Different Kinds of Work
• Organisms Obtain Energy Either from Sunlight or from the Oxidation of Chemical Compounds
• Energy Flows Through the Biosphere Continuously
• The Flow of Energy Through the Biosphere Is Accompanied by a Flow of Matter
• 5.2 Bioenergetics
• Understanding Energy Flow Requires Knowledge of Systems, Heat, and Work
• The First Law of Thermodynamics States That Energy Is Conserved
• The Second Law of Thermodynamics States That Reactions Have Directionality
• Entropy and Free Energy Are Two Means of Assessing Thermodynamic Spontaneity
• 5.3 Understanding ΔG and Keq
• The Equilibrium Constant Keq Is a Measure of Directionality
• ΔG Can Be Calculated Readily
• The Standard Free Energy Change Is ΔG Measured Under Standard Conditions
• Summing Up: The Meaning of ΔGʹ and ΔG°ʹ
• Free Energy Change: Sample Calculations
• Jumping Beans Provide a Useful Analogy for Bioenergetics
• Life Requires Steady-State Reactions That Move Toward Equilibrium Without Ever Getting There
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Human Connections: The “Potential” of Food to Provide Energy
• Key Technique: Measuring How Molecules Bind to One Another Using Isothermal Titration Calorimetry
• Chapter 6. Enzymes: The Catalysts of Life
• 6.1 Activation Energy and the Metastable State
• Before a Chemical Reaction Can Occur, the Activation Energy Barrier Must Be Overcome
• The Metastable State Is a Result of the Activation Barrier
• Catalysts Overcome the Activation Energy Barrier
• 6.2 Enzymes as Biological Catalysts
• Most Enzymes Are Proteins
• Substrate Binding, Activation, and Catalysis Occur at the Active Site
• Ribozymes Are Catalytic RNA Molecules
• 6.3 Enzyme Kinetics
• Monkeys and Peanuts Provide a Useful Analogy for Understanding Enzyme Kinetics
• Most Enzymes Display Michaelis–Menten Kinetics
• What Is the Meaning of V max and Km?
• Why Are Km and Vmax Important to Cell Biologists?
• The Double-Reciprocal Plot Is a Useful Means of Visualizing Kinetic Data
• Enzyme Inhibitors Act Either Irreversibly or Reversibly
• 6.4 Enzyme Regulation
• Allosteric Enzymes Are Regulated by Molecules Other than Reactants and Products
• Allosteric Enzymes Exhibit Cooperative Interactions Between Subunits
• Enzymes Can Also Be Regulated by the Addition or Removal of Chemical Groups
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Human Connections: Ace Inhibitors: Enzyme Activity as TheDifference Between Life and Death
• Key Technique: Determining Km and Vmax Using Enzyme Assays
• Chapter 7. Membranes: Their Structure, Function, and Chemistry
• 7.1 The Functions of Membranes
• Membranes Define Boundaries and Serve as Permeability Barriers
• Membranes Contain Specific Proteins and Therefore Have Specific Functions
• Membrane Proteins Regulate the Transport of Solutes
• Membrane Proteins Detect and Transmit Electrical and Chemical Signals
• Membrane Proteins Mediate Cell Adhesion and Cell-to-Cell Communication
• 7.2 Models of Membrane Structure: An Experimental Perspective
• Overton and Langmuir: Lipids Are Important Components of Membranes
• Gorter and Grendel: The Basis of Membrane Structure Is a Lipid Bilayer
• Davson and Danielli: Membranes Also Contain Proteins
• Robertson: All Membranes Share a Common Underlying Structure
• Further Research Revealed Major Shortcomings of the Davson–Danielli Model
• Singer and Nicolson: A Membrane Consists of a Mosaic of Proteins in a Fluid Lipid Bilayer
• Unwin and Henderson: Most Membrane Proteins Contain Transmembrane Segments
• 7.3 Membrane Lipids: The “Fluid” Part of the Model
• Membranes Contain Several Major Classes of Lipids
• Fatty Acids Are Essential to Membrane Structure and Function
• Thin-Layer Chromatography Is an Important Technique for Lipid Analysis
• Membrane Asymmetry: Most Lipids Are Distributed Unequally Between the Two Monolayers
• The Lipid Bilayer Is Fluid
• Most Organisms Can Regulate Membrane Fluidity
• Lipid Micro- or Nanodomains May Localize Molecules in Membranes
• 7.4 Membrane Proteins: The “Mosaic” Part of the Model
• The Membrane Consists of a Mosaic of Proteins: Evidence from Freeze-Fracture Microscopy
• Membranes Contain Integral, Peripheral, and Lipid-Anchored Proteins
• Membrane Proteins Can Be Isolated and Analyzed
• Determining the Three-Dimensional Structure of Membrane Proteins Is Becoming Easier
• Molecular Biology Has Contributed Greatly to Our Understanding of Membrane Proteins
• Membrane Proteins Have a Variety of Functions
• Membrane Proteins Are Oriented Asymmetrically Across the Lipid Bilayer
• Many Membrane Proteins and Lipids Are Glycosylated
• Membrane Proteins Vary in Their Mobility
• The Erythrocyte Membrane Contains an Interconnected Network of Membrane-Associated Proteins
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP)
• Human Connections: It’s All in the Family
• Chapter 8. Transport Across Membranes: Overcoming the Permeability Barrier
• 8.1 Cells and Transport Processes
• Solutes Cross Membranes by Simple Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, and Active Transport
• The Movement of a Solute Across a Membrane Is Determined by Its Concentration Gradient or Its Electr
• The Erythrocyte Plasma Membrane Provides Examples of Transport
• 8.2 Simple Diffusion: Unassisted Movement Down the Gradient
• Simple Diffusion Always Moves Solutes Toward Equilibrium
• Osmosis Is the Simple Diffusion of Water Across a Selectively Permeable Membrane
• Simple Diffusion Is Typically Limited to Small, Uncharged Molecules
• The Rate of Simple Diffusion Is Directly Proportional to the Concentration Gradient
• 8.3 Facilitated Diffusion: Protein-Mediated Movement Down the Gradient
• Carrier Proteins and Channel Proteins Facilitate Diffusion by Different Mechanisms
• Carrier Proteins Alternate Between Two Conformational States
• Carrier Proteins Are Analogous to Enzymes in Their Specificity and Kinetics
• Carrier Proteins Transport Either One or Two Solutes
• The Erythrocyte Glucose Transporter and Anion Exchange Protein Are Examples of Carrier Proteins
• Channel Proteins Facilitate Diffusion by Forming Hydrophilic Transmembrane Channels
• 8.4 Active Transport: Protein-Mediated Movement Up the Gradient
• The Coupling of Active Transport to an Energy Source May Be Direct or Indirect
• Direct Active Transport Depends on Four Types of Transport ATPases
• Indirect Active Transport Is Driven by Ion Gradients
• 8.5 Examples of Active Transport
• Direct Active Transport: The Na+/K+ Pump Maintains Electrochemical Ion Gradients
• Indirect Active Transport: Sodium Symport Drives the Uptake of Glucose
• The Bacteriorhodopsin Proton Pump Uses Light Energy to Transport Protons
• 8.6 The Energetics of Transport
• For Uncharged Solutes, the ΔG of Transport Depends Only on the Concentration Gradient
• For Charged Solutes, the ΔG of Transport Depends on the Electrochemical Potential
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Expression of Heterologous Membrane Proteins in Frog Oocytes
• Human Connections: Membrane Transport, Cystic Fibrosis, and the Prospects for Gene Therapy
• Chapter 9. Chemotrophic Energy Metabolism: Glycolysis and Fermentation
• 9.1 Metabolic Pathways
• 9.2 ATP: The Primary Energy Molecule in Cells
• ATP Contains Two Energy-Rich Phosphoanhydride Bonds
• ATP Hydrolysis Is Exergonic Due to Several Factors
• ATP Is Extremely Important in Cellular Energy Metabolism
• 9.3 Chemotrophic Energy Metabolism
• Biological Oxidations Usually Involve the Removal of Both Electrons and Protons and Are Exergonic
• Coenzymes Such as NAD+ Serve as Electron Acceptors in Biological Oxidations
• Most Chemotrophs Meet Their Energy Needs by Oxidizing Organic Food Molecules
• Glucose Is One of the Most Important Oxidizable Substrates in Energy Metabolism
• The Oxidation of Glucose Is Highly Exergonic
• Glucose Catabolism Yields Much More Energy in the Presence of Oxygen Than in Its Absence
• Based on Their Need for Oxygen, Organisms Are Aerobic, Anaerobic, or Facultative
• 9.4 Glycolysis: ATP Generation Without the Involvement of Oxygen
• Glycolysis Generates ATP by Catabolizing Glucose to Pyruvate
• 9.5 Fermentation
• In the Absence of Oxygen, Pyruvate Undergoes Fermentation to Regenerate NAD+
• Fermentation Taps Only a Fraction of the Substrate’s Free Energy but Conserves That Energy Efficie
• Cancer Cells Ferment Glucose to Lactate Even in the Presence of Oxygen
• 9.6 Alternative Substrates for Glycolysis
• Other Sugars and Glycerol Are Also Catabolized by the Glycolytic Pathway
• Polysaccharides Are Cleaved to Form Sugar Phosphates That Also Enter the Glycolytic Pathway
• 9.7 Gluconeogenesis
• 9.8 The Regulation of Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis
• Key Enzymes in the Glycolytic and Gluconeogenic Pathways Are Subject to Allosteric Regulation
• Fructose-2,6-Bisphosphate Is an Important Regulator of Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis
• Glycolytic Enzymes May Have Functions Beyond Glycolysis
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Using Isotopic Labeling to Determine the Fate of Atoms in a Metabolic Pathway
• Human Connections: What Happens to the Sugar?
• Chapter 10. Chemotrophic Energy Metabolism: Aerobic Respiration
• 10.1 Cellular Respiration: Maximizing ATP Yields
• Aerobic Respiration Yields Much More Energy than Fermentation Does
• Respiration Includes Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation, the Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport, and
• 10.2 The Mitochondrion: Where the Action Takes Place
• Mitochondria Are Often Present Where the ATP Needs Are Greatest
• Mitochondria Can Adopt Complex Shapes and Vary in Number in Different Cell Types
• The Outer and Inner Membranes Define Two Separate Mitochondrial Compartments and Three Regions
• Many Mitochondrial Proteins Originate in the Cytosol
• Mitochondrial Functions Occur in or on Specific Membranes and Compartments
• In Bacteria, Respiratory Functions Are Localized to the Plasma Membrane and the Cytoplasm
• 10.3 The Citric Acid Cycle: Oxidation in the Round
• Pyruvate Is Converted to Acetyl Coenzyme A by Oxidative Decarboxylation
• The Citric Acid Cycle Begins with the Entry of Two Carbons from Acetyl CoA
• Two Oxidative Decarboxylations Then Form NADH and Release CO2
• Direct Generation of GTP (or ATP) Occurs at One Step in the Citric Acid Cycle
• The Final Oxidative Reactions of the Citric Acid Cycle Generate FADH2 and NADH
• Summing Up: The Products of the Citric Acid Cycle Are CO2 , ATP, NADH, and FADH2
• Several Citric Acid Cycle Enzymes Are Subject to Allosteric Regulation
• The Citric Acid Cycle Also Plays a Central Role in the Catabolism of Fats and Proteins
• The Citric Acid Cycle Serves as a Source of Precursors for Anabolic Pathways
• The Glyoxylate Cycle Converts Acetyl CoA to Carbohydrates in Plants
• 10.4 Electron Transport: Electron Flow from Coenzymes to Oxygen
• The Electron Transport Chain Conveys Electrons from Reduced Coenzymes to Oxygen
• The Electron Transport Chain Consists of Five Kinds of Carriers
• The Electron Carriers Function in a Sequence Determined by Their Reduction Potentials
• Most of the Carriers Are Organized into Four Large Respiratory Complexes
• The Respiratory Complexes Move Freely Within the Inner Membrane
• 10.5 The Electrochemical Proton Gradient: Key to Energy Coupling
• Electron Transport and ATP Synthesis Are Coupled Events
• Coenzyme Oxidation Pumps Enough Protons to Form Three ATP Moleculesper NADH and Two ATP Molecules pe
• The Chemiosmotic Model Is Affirmed by an Impressive Array of Evidence
• 10.6 ATP Synthesis: Putting It All Together
• F1 Particles Have ATP Synthase Activity
• Proton Translocation Through Fo Drives ATP Synthesis by F1
• ATP Synthesis by FoF1 Involves Physical Rotation of the Gamma Subunit
• 10.7 Aerobic Respiration: Summing It All Up
• The Actual ATP Yield per Glucose during Aerobic Respiration Is Influencedby Several Factors
• Aerobic Respiration: A Remarkable Process
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Visualizing Cellular Structures with Three-Dimensional Electron Microscopy
• Human Connections: A Diet Worth Dying For?
• Chapter 11. Phototrophic Energy Metabolism: Photosynthesis
• 11.1 An Overview of Photosynthesis
• The Energy Transduction Reactions Convert Solar Energy to Chemical Energy
• The Carbon Assimilation Reactions Fix Carbon by Reducing Carbon Dioxide
• The Chloroplast Is the Photosynthetic Organelle in Eukaryotic Cells
• Chloroplasts Are Composed of Three Membrane Systems
• 11.2 Photosynthetic Energy Transduction I: Light Harvesting
• Chlorophyll Is Life’s Primary Link to Sunlight
• Accessory Pigments Further Expand Access to Solar Energy
• Light-Gathering Molecules Are Organized into Photosystems and Light-Harvesting Complexes
• Oxygenic Phototrophs Have Two Types of Photosystems
• 11.3 Photosynthetic Energy Transduction II: NADPH Synthesis
• Photosystem II Transfers Electrons from Water to a Plastoquinone
• The Cytochrome b6/f Complex Transfers Electrons from a Plastoquinol to Plastocyanin
• Photosystem I Transfers Electrons from Plastocyanin to Ferredoxin
• Ferredoxin-NADP+ Reductase Catalyzes the Reduction of NADP+
• 11.4 Photosynthetic Energy Transduction III: ATP Synthesis
• A Chloroplast ATP Synthase Couples Transport of Protons Across the Thylakoid Membrane to ATP Synthes
• Cyclic Photophosphorylation Allows a Photosynthetic Cell to Balance NADPH and ATP Synthesis
• A Summary of the Complete Energy Transduction System
• Bacteria Use a Photosynthetic Reaction Center and Electron Transport System Similar to Those in Plan
• 11.5 Photosynthetic Carbon Assimilation I: The Calvin Cycle
• Carbon Dioxide Enters the Calvin Cycle by Carboxylation of Ribulose-1,5-Bisphosphate
• 3-Phosphoglycerate Is Reduced to Form Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate
• Regeneration of Ribulose-1,5-Bisphosphate Allows Continuous Carbon Assimilation
• The Complete Calvin Cycle and Its Relation to Photosynthetic Energy Transduction
• 11.6 Regulation of the Calvin Cycle
• The Calvin Cycle Is Highly Regulated to Ensure Maximum Efficiency
• Rubisco Activase Regulates Carbon Fixation by Rubisco
• 11.7 Photosynthetic Carbon Assimilation II: Carbohydrate Synthesis
• Glucose-1-Phosphate Is Synthesized from Triose Phosphates
• Biosynthesis of Sucrose Occurs in the Cytosol
• Biosynthesis of Starch Occurs in the Chloroplast Stroma
• Photosynthesis Also Produces Reduced Nitrogen and Sulfur Compounds
• 11.8 Rubisco’s Oxygenase Activity Decreases Photosynthetic Efficiency
• The Glycolate Pathway Returns Reduced Carbon from Phosphoglycolate to the Calvin Cycle
• C4 Plants Minimize Photorespiration by Confining Rubisco to CellsContaining High Concentrations of C
• CAM Plants Minimize Photorespiration and Water Loss by Opening Their Stomata Only at Night
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Determining Absorption and Action Spectra via Spectrophotometry
• Human Connections: How Do Plants Put On Sunscreen?
• Chapter 12. The Endomembrane System and Protein Sorting
• 12.1 The Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The Two Basic Kinds of Endoplasmic Reticulum Differ in Structure and Function
• Rough ER Is Involved in the Biosynthesis and Processing of Proteins
• Smooth ER Is Involved in Drug Detoxification, Carbohydrate Metabolism, Calcium Storage, and Steroid
• The ER Plays a Central Role in the Biosynthesis of Membranes
• 12.2 The Golgi Apparatus
• The Golgi Apparatus Consists of a Series of Membrane-Bounded Cisternae
• Two Models Account for the Flow of Lipids and Proteins Through the Golgi Apparatus
• 12.3 Roles of the ER and Golgi Apparatus in Protein Processing
• Protein Folding and Quality Control Take Place Within the ER
• Initial Glycosylation Occurs in the ER
• Further Glycosylation Occurs in the Golgi Apparatus
• 12.4 Roles of the ER and Golgi Apparatus In Protein Trafficking
• Cotranslational Import Allows Some Polypeptides to Enter the ER as They Are Being Synthesized
• The Signal Recognition Particle (SRP) Attaches the Ribosome-mRNA-PolypeptideComplex to the ER Membra
• Proteins Released into the ER Lumen Are Routed to the Golgi Apparatus, Secretory Vesicles, Lysosomes
• Stop-Transfer Sequences Mediate the Insertion of Integral Membrane Proteins
• Posttranslational Import Is an Alternative Mechanism for Import into the ER Lumen
• 12.5 Exocytosis and Endocytosis: Transporting Material Across the Plasma Membrane
• Secretory Pathways Transport Molecules to the Exterior of the Cell
• Exocytosis Releases Intracellular Molecules Outside the Cell
• Endocytosis Imports Extracellular Molecules by Forming Vesicles from the Plasma Membrane
• 12.6 Coated Vesicles in Cellular Transport Processes
• Clathrin-Coated Vesicles Are Surrounded by Lattices Composed of Clathrin and Adaptor Protein
• The Assembly of Clathrin Coats Drives the Formation of Vesicles from the Plasma Membrane and TGN
• COPI- and COPII-Coated Vesicles Travel Between the ER and Golgi Apparatus Cisternae
• SNARE Proteins Mediate Fusion Between Vesicles and Target Membranes
• 12.7 Lysosomes and Cellular Digestion
• Lysosomes Isolate Digestive Enzymes from the Rest of the Cell
• Lysosomes Develop from Endosomes
• Lysosomal Enzymes Are Important for Several Different Digestive Processes
• Lysosomal Storage Diseases Are Usually Characterized by the Accumulation of Indigestible Material
• The Plant Vacuole: A Multifunctional Digestive Organelle
• 12.8 Peroxisomes
• Most Peroxisomal Functions Are Linked to Hydrogen Peroxide Metabolism
• Plant Cells Contain Types of Peroxisomes Not Found in Animal Cells
• Peroxisome Biogenesis Can Occur by Division of Preexisting Peroxisomes or by Vesicle Fusion
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Visualizing Vesicles at the Cell Surface Using Total Internal Reflection (TIRF) Micro
• Human Connections: A Bad Case of the Munchies? (Autophagy In Inflammatory Bowel Disease)
• Chapter 13. Cytoskeletal Systems
• 13.1 Major Structural Elements of the Cytoskeleton
• Eukaryotes Have Three Basic Types of Cytoskeletal Elements
• Bacteria Have Cytoskeletal Systems That Are Structurally Similar to Those in Eukaryotes
• The Cytoskeleton Is Dynamically Assembled and Disassembled
• 13.2 Microtubules
• Two Types of Microtubules Are Responsible for Many Functions in the Cell
• Tubulin Heterodimers Are the Protein Building Blocks of Microtubules
• Microtubules Can Form as Singlets, Doublets, or Triplets
• Microtubules Form by the Addition of Tubulin Dimers at Their Ends
• Addition of Tubulin Dimers Occurs More Quickly at the Plus Ends of Microtubules
• Drugs Can Affect the Assembly and Stability of Microtubules
• GTP Hydrolysis Contributes to the Dynamic Instability of Microtubules
• Microtubules Originate from Microtubule-Organizing Centers Within the Cell
• MTOCs Organize and Polarize Microtubules Within Cells
• Microtubule Stability Is Tightly Regulated in Cells by a Variety of Microtubule-Binding Proteins
• 13.3 Microfilaments
• Actin Is the Protein Building Block of Microfilaments
• Different Types of Actin Are Found in Cells
• G-Actin Monomers Polymerize into F-Actin Microfilaments
• Specific Drugs Affect Polymerization of Microfilaments
• Cells Can Dynamically Assemble Actin into a Variety of Structures
• Actin-Binding Proteins Regulate the Polymerization, Length, and Organization of Microfilaments
• Proteins That Link Actin to Membranes
• Phospholipids and Rho Family GTPases Regulate Where and When Actin-Based Structures Assemble
• 13.4 Intermediate Filaments
• Intermediate Filament Proteins Are Tissue Specific
• Intermediate Filaments Assemble from Fibrous Subunits
• Intermediate Filaments Confer Mechanical Strength on Tissues
• The Cytoskeleton Is a Mechanically Integrated Structure
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Studying the Dynamic Cytoskeleton
• Human Connections: When Actin Kills
• Chapter 14. Cellular Movement: Motility and Contractility
• 14.1 Microtubule-Based Movement Inside Cells: Kinesins and Dyneins
• Motor Proteins Move Cargoes Along MTs During Axonal Transport
• Classic Kinesins Move Toward the Plus Ends of Microtubules
• Kinesins Are a Large Family of Proteins
• Dyneins Are Found in Axonemes and the Cytosol
• Microtubule Motors Direct Vesicle Transport and Shape the Endomem-brane System
• 14.2 Microtubule-Based Cell Motility: Cilia And Flagella
• Cilia and Flagella Are Common Motile Appendages of Eukaryotic Cells
• Cilia and Flagella Consist of an Axoneme Connected to a Basal Body
• Doublet Sliding Within the Axoneme Causes Cilia and Flagella to Bend
• 14.3 Microfilament-Based Movement Inside Cells: Myosins
• Myosins Are a Large Family of Actin-Based Motors with Diverse Roles in Cell Motility
• Many Myosins Move Along Actin Filaments in Short Steps
• 14.4 Microfilament-Based Motility: Muscle Cells In Action
• Skeletal Muscle Cells Contain Thin and Thick Filaments
• Sarcomeres Contain Ordered Arrays of Actin, Myosin, and Accessory Proteins
• The Sliding-Filament Model Explains Muscle Contraction
• Cross-Bridges Hold Filaments Together, and ATP Powers Their Movement
• The Regulation of Muscle Contraction Depends on Calcium
• The Coordinated Contraction of Cardiac Muscle Cells Involves Electrical Coupling
• Smooth Muscle Is More Similar to Nonmuscle Cells than to Skeletal Muscle
• 14.5 Microfilament-Based Motility In Nonmuscle Cells
• Cell Migration via Lamellipodia Involves Cycles of Protrusion, Attachment, Translocation, and Detach
• Chemotaxis Is a Directional Movement in Response to a Graded Chemical Stimulus
• Amoeboid Movement Involves Cycles of Gelation and Solation of Actin
• Actin-Based Motors Move Components Within the Cytosol of Some Cells
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Watching Motors Too Small to See
• Human Connections: Dyneins Help Us Tell Left From Right
• Chapter 15. Beyond the Cell: Cell Adhesions, Cell Junctions, and Extracellular Structures
• 15.1 Cell-Cell Junctions
• Adhesive Junctions Link Adjoining Cells
• Transient Cell-Cell Adhesions Are Important for Many Cellular Events
• Tight Junctions Prevent the Movement of Molecules Across Cell Layers
• Gap Junctions Allow Direct Electrical and Chemical Communication Between Cells
• 15.2 The Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells
• Collagens Are Responsible for the Strength of the Extracellular Matrix
• Elastins Impart Elasticity and Flexibility to the Extracellular Matrix
• Collagen and Elastin Fibers Are Embedded in a Matrix of Proteoglycans
• Free Hyaluronate Lubricates Joints and Facilitates Cell Migration
• Adhesive Glycoproteins Anchor Cells to the Extracellular Matrix
• Fibronectins Bind Cells to the ECM and Foster Cellular Movement
• Laminins Bind Cells to the Basal Lamina
• Integrins Are Cell Surface Receptors That Bind ECM Components
• The Dystrophin/Dystroglycan Complex Stabilizes Attachments of Muscle Cells to the ECM
• 15.3 The Plant Cell Surface
• Cell Walls Provide a Structural Framework and Serve as a Permeability Barrier
• The Plant Cell Wall Is a Network of Cellulose Microfibrils, Polysaccharides, and Glycoproteins
• Cell Walls Are Synthesized in Several Discrete Stages
• Plasmodesmata Permit Direct Cell-Cell Communication Through the Cell Wall
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Human Connections: The Costly Effects of Weak Adhesion
• Key Technique: Building an ECM from Scratch
• Chapter 16. The Structural Basis of Cellular Information: DNA, Chromosomes, and the Nucleus
• 16.1 Chemical Nature of the Genetic Material
• The Discovery of DNA Led to Conflicting Proposals Concerning the Chemical Nature of Genes
• Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty Showed That DNA Is the Genetic Material of Bacteria
• Hershey and Chase Showed That DNA Is the Genetic Material of Viruses
• RNA Is the Genetic Material in Some Viruses
• 16.2 DNA Structure
• Chargaff ’s Rules Reveal That A = T and G = C
• Watson and Crick Discovered That DNA Is a Double Helix
• DNA Can Be Interconverted Between Relaxed and Supercoiled Forms
• The Two Strands of a DNA Double Helix Can Be Denatured and Renatured
• 16.3 DNA Packaging
• Bacteria Package DNA in Bacterial Chromosomes and Plasmids
• Eukaryotes Package DNA in Chromatin and Chromosomes
• Nucleosomes Are the Basic Unit of Chromatin Structure
• A Histone Octamer Forms the Nucleosome Core
• Nucleosomes Are Packed Together to Form Chromatin Fibers and Chromosomes
• Changes in Histones and Chromatin Remodeling Proteins Can Alter Chromatin Packing
• Chromosomal DNA Contains Euchromatin and Heterochromatin
• Some Heterochromatin Plays a Structural Role in Chromosomes
• Chromosomes Can Be Identified by Unique Banding Patterns
• Eukaryotic Chromosomes Contain Large Amounts of Repeated DNA Sequences
• Eukaryotes Package Some of Their DNA in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
• 16.4 The Nucleus
• A Double-Membrane Nuclear Envelope Surrounds the Nucleus
• Molecules Enter and Exit the Nucleus Through Nuclear Pores
• The Nucleus Is Mechanically Integrated with the Rest of the Cell
• Chromatin Is Located Within the Nucleus in a Nonrandom Fashion
• The Nucleolus Is Involved in Ribosome Formation
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: FISHing for Specific Sequences
• Human Connections: Lamins and Premature Aging
• Chapter 17. DNA Replication, Repair, and Recombination
• 17.1 DNA Replication
• DNA Synthesis Occurs During S Phase
• DNA Replication Is Semiconservative
• DNA Replication Is Usually Bidirectional
• Replication Initiates at Specialized DNA Elements
• DNA Polymerases Catalyze the Elongation of DNA Chains
• DNA Is Synthesized as Discontinuous Segments That Are Joined Together by DNA Ligase
• In Bacteria, Proofreading Is Performed by the 3’→5′ Exonuclease Activity of DNA Polymerase
• RNA Primers Initiate DNA Replication
• The DNA Double Helix Must Be Locally Unwound During Replication
• DNA Unwinding and DNA Synthesis Are Coordinated on Both Strands via the Replisome
• Eukaryotes Disassemble and Reassemble Nucleosomes as Replication Proceeds
• Telomeres Solve the DNA End-Replication Problem
• 17.2 DNA Damage and Repair
• Mutations Can Occur Spontaneously During Replication
• Mutagens Can Induce Mutations
• DNA Repair Systems Correct Many Kinds of DNA Damage
• 17.3 Homologous Recombination and Mobile Genetic Elements
• Homologous Recombination Is Initiated by Double-Strand Breaks in DNA
• Transposons Are Mobile Genetic Elements
• Transposons Differ Based on Their Autonomy and Mechanism of Movement
• Bacterial DNA-Only Transposons Can Be Composite or Noncomposite
• Eukaryotes Also Have DNA-Only Transposons
• Retrotransposons
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Human Connections: Children of The Moon
• Key Technique: CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing
• Chapter 18. Gene Expression: I. Transcription
• 18.1 The Directional Flow of Genetic Information
• Transcription and Translation Involve Many of the Same Components in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
• Where Transcription and Translation Occur Differs in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
• In Some Cases RNA Is Reversed Transcribed into DNA
• 18.2 Mechanisms of Transcription
• Transcription Involves Four Stages: RNA Polymerase Binding, Initiation, Elongation, and Termination
• Bacterial Transcription Involves ˜ Factor Binding, Initiation, Elongation, and Termination
• Transcription in Eukaryotic Cells Has Additional Complexity Compared with Prokaryotes
• RNA Polymerases I, II, and III Carry Out Transcription in the Eukaryotic Nucleus
• Three Classes of Promoters Are Found in Eukaryotic Nuclear Genes, One for Each Type of RNA Polymeras
• General Transcription Factors Are Involved in the Transcription of All Nuclear Genes
• Elongation, Termination, and RNA Cleavage Are Involved in Completing Eukaryotic RNA Synthesis
• 18.3 RNA Processing and Turnover
• The Nucleolus Is Involved in Ribosome Formation
• Ribosomal RNA Processing Involves Cleavage of Multiple rRNAs from a Common Precursor
• Transfer RNA Processing Involves Removal, Addition, and Chemical Modification of Nucleotides
• Messenger RNA Processing in Eukaryotes Involves Capping, Addition of Poly(A), and Removal of Introns
• Spliceosomes Remove Introns from Pre-mRNA
• Some Introns Are Self-Splicing
• The Existence of Introns Permits Alternative Splicing and Exon Shuffling
• Cells Localize Nuclear RNAs in Several Types of Processing Centers
• Nucleic Acid Editing Allows Sequences to Be Altered
• The C-Terminal Domain of RNA Polymerase II Coordinates RNA Processing
• Nuclear Export of Mature mRNA
• Most mRNA Molecules Have a Relatively Short Life Span
• The Abundance of mRNA Allows Amplification of Genetic Information
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Hunting for DNA-Protein Interactions
• Human Connections: Death by Fungus (Amanita PhalloidesPoisoning)
• Chapter 19. Gene Expression: II. The Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis
• 19.1 The Genetic Code
• The Genetic Code Is a Triplet Code
• The Genetic Code Is Degenerate and Nonoverlapping
• Messenger RNA Guides the Synthesis of Polypeptide Chains
• The Codon Dictionary Was Established Using Synthetic RNA Polymers and Triplets
• Of the 64 Possible Codons in Messenger RNA, 61 Encode Amino Acids
• The Genetic Code Is (Nearly) Universal
• Codon Usage Bias
• 19.2 Translation: The Cast of Characters
• Ribosomes Carry Out Polypeptide Synthesis
• Transfer RNA Molecules Bring Amino Acids to the Ribosome
• Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases Link Amino Acids to the Correct Transfer RNAs
• Messenger RNA Brings Polypeptide Coding Information to the Ribosome
• Protein Factors Are Required for Translational Initiation, Elongation, and Termination
• 19.3 The Mechanism of Translation
• Translational Initiation Requires Initiation Factors, Ribosomal Subunits, mRNA, and Initiator tRNA
• Chain Elongation Involves Cycles of Aminoacyl tRNA Binding, Peptide Bond Formation, and Translocatio
• Most mRNAs Are Read by Many Ribosomes Simultaneously
• Termination of Polypeptide Synthesis Is Triggered by Release Factors That Recognize Stop Codons
• Polypeptide Folding Is Facilitated by Molecular Chaperones
• Protein Synthesis Typically Utilizes a Substantial Fraction of a Cell’s Energy Budget
• A Summary of Translation
• 19.4 Mutations and Translation
• Suppressor tRNAs Overcome the Effects of Some Mutations
• Nonsense-Mediated Decay and Nonstop Decay Promote the Destruction of Defective mRNAs
• 19.5 Posttranslational Processing
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Human Connections: To Catch a Killer: The Problem of Antibiotic Resistance In Bacteria
• Key Technique: Protein Localization Using Fluorescent Fusion Proteins
• Chapter 20. The Regulation of Gene Expression
• 20.1 Bacterial Gene Regulation
• Catabolic and Anabolic Pathways Are Regulated Through Induction and Repression, Respectively
• The Genes Involved in Lactose Catabolism Are Organized into an Inducible Operon
• The lac Operon Is Negatively Regulated by the lac Repressor
• Studies of Mutant Bacteria Revealed How the lac Operon Is Organized
• Catabolite Activator Protein (CAP) Positively Regulates the lac Operon
• The lac Operon Is an Example of the Dual Control of Gene Expression
• The Structure of the lac Repressor/Operator Complex Confirms the Operon Model
• The Genes Involved in Tryptophan Synthesis Are Organized into a Repressible Operon
• Sigma Factors Determine Which Sets of Genes Can Be Expressed
• Attenuation Allows Transcription to Be Regulated After the Initiation Step
• Riboswitches Allow Transcription and Translation to Be Controlled by Small-Molecule Interactions wit
• The CRISPR/Cas System Protects Bacteria Against Viral Infection
• 20.2 Eukaryotic Gene Regulation: Genomic Control
• Multicellular Eukaryotes Are Composed of Numerous Specialized Cell Types
• Eukaryotic Gene Expression Is Regulated at Five Main Levels
• The Cells of a Multicellular Organism Usually Contain the Same Set of Genes
• Gene Amplification and Deletion Can Alter the Genome
• DNA Rearrangements Can Alter the Genome
• Chromatin Decondensation Is Involved in Genomic Control
• DNA Methylation Is Associated with Inactive Regions of the Genome
• 20.3 Eukaryotic Gene Regulation: Transcriptional Control
• Different Sets of Genes Are Transcribed in Different Cell Types
• Proximal Control Elements Lie Close to the Promoter
• Enhancers and Silencers Are DNA Elements Located at Variable Distances from the Promoter
• Coactivators Mediate the Interaction Between Regulatory Transcription Factors and the RNA Polymerase
• Multiple DNA Control Elements and Transcription Factors Act in Combination
• DNA-Binding and Activation Domains of Regulatory Transcription Factors Are Functionally Separable
• Several Common Types of Transcription Factors Bind to DNA and Activate Transcription
• DNA Response Elements Coordinate the Expression of Nonadjacent Genes
• Steroid Hormone Receptors Act as Transcription Factors That Bind to Hormone Response Elements
• CREBs and STATs Are Examples of Transcription Factors Activated by Phosphorylation
• The Heat Shock Response Element Coordinates Stress Responses
• Homeotic Genes Encode Transcription Factors That Regulate Embryonic Development
• 20.4 Eukaryotic Gene Regulation: Posttranscriptional Control
• Control of RNA Processing and Nuclear Export Follows Transcription
• Translation Rates Can Be Controlled by Initiation Factors and Translational Repressors
• Translation Can Also Be Controlled by Regulation of mRNA Degradation
• RNA Interference Utilizes Small RNAs to Silence Gene Expression
• MicroRNAs Produced by Normal Cellular Genes Silence the Translation of mRNAs
• Piwi-Interacting RNAs Are Small Regulatory RNAs That Protect the Germline of Eukaryotes
• Long Noncoding RNAs Play a Variety of Roles in Eukaryotic Gene Regulation
• Posttranslational Control Involves Modifications of Protein Structure, Function, and Degradation
• Ubiquitin Targets Proteins for Degradation by Proteasomes
• A Summary of Eukaryotic Gene Regulation
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Human Connections: The Epigenome: Methylation and Disease
• Key Technique: Gene Knockdown via RNAi
• Chapter 21. Molecular Biology Techniques for Cell Biology
• 21.1 Analyzing, Manipulating, and Cloning DNA
• PCR Is Widely Used to Clone Genes
• Restriction Endonucleases Cleave DNA Molecules at Specific Sites
• Gel Electrophoresis Allows DNA to Be Separated by Size
• Restriction Mapping Can Characterize DNA
• Southern Blotting Identifies Specific DNAs from a Mixture
• Restriction Enzymes Allow Production of Recombinant DNA
• DNA Cloning Can Use Bacterial Cloning Vectors
• Genomic and cDNA Libraries Are Both Useful for DNA Cloning
• 21.2 Sequencing and Analyzing Genomes
• Rapid Procedures Exist for DNA Sequencing
• Whole Genomes Can Be Sequenced
• Comparative Genomics Allows Comparison of Genomes and Genes Within Them
• The Field of Bioinformatics Helps Decipher Genomes
• Tiny Differences in Genome Sequence Distinguish People from One Another
• 21.3 Analyzing RNA and Proteins
• Several Techniques Allow Detection of mRNAs in Time and Space
• The Transcription of Thousands of Genes Can Be Assessed Simultaneously
• Proteins Can Be Studied Using Electrophoresis
• Antibodies Can Be Used to Study Specific Proteins
• Proteins Can Be Isolated by Size, Charge, or Affinity
• Proteins Can Be Identified from Complex Mixtures Using Mass Spectrometry
• Protein Function Can Be Studied Using Molecular Biology Techniques
• Protein-Protein Interactions Can Be Studied in a Variety of Ways
• 21.4 Analyzing and Manipulating Gene Function
• Transgenic Organisms Carry Foreign Genes That Are Passed on to Subsequent Generations
• Transcriptional Reporters Are Useful for Studying Regulation of Gene Expression
• The Role of Specific Genes Can Be Assessed By Identifying Mutations and by Knockdown
• Genetic Engineering Can Produce Valuable Proteins That Are Otherwise Difficult to Obtain
• Food Crops Can Be Genetically Modified
• Gene Therapies Are Being Developed for the Treatment of Human Diseases
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
• Human Connections: More Than Your Fingertips: Identifying Genetic “Fingerprints”
• Chapter 22. Signal Transduction Mechanisms: I. Electrical and Synaptic Signaling in Neurons
• 22.1 Neurons and Membrane Potential
• Neurons Are Specially Adapted to Transmit Electrical Signals
• Neurons Undergo Changes in Membrane Potential
• Neurons Display Electrical Excitability
• Resting Membrane Potential Depends on Ion Concentrations and Selective Membrane Permeability
• The Nernst Equation Describes the Relationship Between Membrane Potential and Ion Concentration
• Steady-State Ion Concentrations Affect Resting Membrane Potential
• The Goldman Equation Describes the Combined Effects of Ions on Membrane Potential
• 22.2 Electrical Excitability and the Action Potential
• Patch Clamping and Molecular Biological Techniques Allow Study of Single Ion Channels
• Specific Domains of Voltage-Gated Channels Act as Sensors and Inactivators
• Action Potentials Propagate Electrical Signals Along an Axon
• Action Potentials Involve Rapid Changes in the Membrane Potential of the Axon
• Action Potentials Result from the Rapid Movement of Ions Through Axonal Membrane Channels
• Action Potentials Are Propagated Along the Axon Without Losing Strength
• The Myelin Sheath Acts Like an Electrical Insulator Surrounding the Axon
• 22.3 Synaptic Transmission and Signal Integration
• Neurotransmitters Relay Signals Across Nerve Synapses
• Elevated Calcium Levels Stimulate Secretion of Neurotransmitters from Presynaptic Neurons
• Secretion of Neurotransmitters Involves the Docking and Fusion of Vesicles with the Plasma Membrane
• Neurotransmitters Are Detected by Specific Receptors on Postsynaptic Neurons
• Neurotransmitters Must Be Inactivated Shortly After Their Release
• Postsynaptic Potentials Integrate Signals from Multiple Neurons
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Patch Clamping
• Human Connections: The Toxic Price of the Fountain of Youth
• Chapter 23. Signal Transduction Mechanisms: II. Messengers and Receptors
• 23.1 Chemical Signals and Cellular Receptors
• Chemical Signaling Involves Several Key Components
• Receptor Binding Involves Quantitative Interactions Between Ligands and Their Receptors
• Cells Can Amplify Signals Once They Are Received
• Cell-Cell Signals Act Through a Limited Number of Receptors and Signal Transduction Pathways
• 23.2 G Protein–Coupled Receptors
• G Protein–Coupled Receptors Act via Hydrolysis of GTP
• Cyclic AMP Is a Second Messenger Whose Production Is Regulated by Some G Proteins
• Disruption of G Protein Signaling Causes Human Disease
• Many G Proteins Act Through Inositol Trisphosphate and Diacylglycerol
• The Release of Calcium Ions Is a Key Event in Many Signaling Processes
• 23.3 Enzyme-Coupled Receptors
• Growth Factors Often Bind Protein Kinase-Associated Receptors
• Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Aggregate and Undergo Autophosphorylation
• Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Initiate a Signal Transduction Cascade Involving Ras and MAP Kinase
• The Key Steps in RTK Signaling Can Be Dissected Using Mutants
• Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Activate a Variety of Other Signaling Pathways
• Other Growth Factors Transduce Their Signals via Receptor Serine-Threonine Kinases
• Other Enzyme-Coupled Receptors Families
• 23.4 Putting It All Together: Signal Integration
• Scaffolding Complexes Can Facilitate Cell Signaling
• Different Signaling Pathways Are Integrated Through Crosstalk
• 23.5 Hormones and Other Long-Range Signals
• Hormones Can Be Classified by Their Chemical Properties
• The Endocrine System Controls Multiple Signaling Pathways to Regulate Glucose Levels
• Steroid Hormones Bind Hormones in the Cytosol and Carry Them into the Nucleus
• Gases Can Act as Cell Signals
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Calcium Indicators and Ionophores
• Human Connections: The Gas That Prevents a Heart Attack
• Chapter 24. The Cell Cycle and Mitosis
• 24.1 Overview of the Cell Cycle
• 24.2 Nuclear and Cell Division
• Mitosis Is Subdivided into Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase
• The Mitotic Spindle Is Responsible for Chromosome Movements During Mitosis
• Cytokinesis Divides the Cytoplasm
• Bacteria and Eukaryotic Organelles Divide in a Different Manner from Eukaryotic Cells
• 24.3 Regulation of the Cell Cycle
• Cell Cycle Length Varies Among Different Cell Types
• Cell Cycle Progression Is Controlled at Several Key Transition Points
• Cell Fusion Experiments and Cell Cycle Mutants Identified Molecules That Control the Cell Cycle
• The Cell Cycle Is Controlled by Cyclin-Dependent Kinases (Cdks)
• Cdk-Cyclin Complexes Are Tightly Regulated
• The Anaphase-Promoting Complex Allows Exit from Mitosis
• Checkpoint Pathways Monitor Key Steps in the Cell Cycle
• 24.4 Growth Factors and Cell Proliferation
• Stimulatory Growth Factors Activate the Ras Pathway
• Stimulatory Growth Factors Can Also Activate the PI 3-Kinase–Akt Pathway
• Inhibitory Growth Factors Act Through Cdk Inhibitors
• Putting It All Together: The Cell Cycle Regulation Machine
• 24.5 Apoptosis
• Apoptosis Is Triggered by Death Signals or Withdrawal of Survival Factors
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Key Technique: Measuring Cells Millions at a Time
• Human Connections: What do Ethnobotany and Cancer Have in Common?
• Chapter 25. Sexual Reproduction, Meiosis, and Genetic Recombination
• 25.1 Sexual Reproduction
• Sexual Reproduction Produces Genetic Variety
• Gametes Are Haploid Cells Specialized for Sexual Reproduction
• 25.2 Meiosis
• The Life Cycles of Sexual Organisms Have Diploid and Haploid Phases
• Meiosis Converts One Diploid Cell into Four Haploid Cells
• Meiosis I Produces Two Haploid Cells That Have Chromosomes Composed of Sister Chromatids
• Meiosis II Resembles a Mitotic Division
• Defects in Meiosis Lead to Nondisjunction
• Sperm and Egg Cells Are Generated by Meiosis Accompanied by Cell Differentiation
• Meiotic Maturation of Oocytes Is Tightly Regulated
• 25.3 Genetic Variability: Segregation and Assortment of Alleles
• Meiosis Generates Genetic Diversity
• Information Specifying Recessive Traits Can Be Present Without Being Displayed
• Alleles of Each Gene Segregate from Each Other During Gamete Formation
• Alleles of Each Gene Segregate Independently of the Alleles of Other Genes
• Chromosome Behavior Explains the Laws of Segregation and Independent Assortment
• The DNA Molecules of Homologous Chromosomes Have Similar Base Sequences
• 25.4 Genetic Variability: Recombination and Crossing Over
• Chromosomes Contain Groups of Linked Genes That Are Usually Inherited Together
• Homologous Chromosomes Exchange Segments During Crossing Over
• Gene Locations Can Be Mapped by Measuring Recombination Frequencies
• 25.5 Genetic Recombination in Bacteria and Viruses
• Co-infection of Bacterial Cells with Related Bacteriophages Can Lead to Genetic Recombination
• Recombination in Bacteria Can Occur via Transformation or Transduction
• Conjugation Is a Modified Sexual Activity That Facilitates Genetic Recombination in Bacteria
• 25.6 Mechanisms of Homologous Recombination
• DNA Breakage and Exchange Underlie Homologous Recombination Between Chromosomes
• The Synaptonemal Complex Facilitates Homologous Recombination During Meiosis
• Homologous Recombination Between Chromosomes Relies on High-Fidelity DNA Repair
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Human Connections: When Meiosis Goes Awry
• Key Technique: Using Mendel’s Rules to Predict Human Disease
• Chapter 26. Cancer Cells
• 26.1 How Cancers Arise
• Tumors Arise When the Balance Between Cell Division and Cell Differentiation or Death Is Disrupted
• Cancer Cell Proliferation Is Anchorage Independent and Insensitive to Population Density
• Cancer Cells Are Immortalized by Mechanisms That Maintain Telomere Length
• Defects in Signaling Pathways, Cell Cycle Controls, and Apoptosis Contribute to Cancer
• Cancer Arises Through a Multistep Process Involving Initiation, Promotion, and Tumor Progression
• 26.2 How Cancers Spread
• Angiogenesis Is Required for Tumors to Grow Beyond a Few Millimeters in Diameter
• Blood Vessel Growth Is Controlled by a Balance Between Angiogenesis Activators and Inhibitors
• Cancer Cells Spread by Invasion and Metastasis
• Changes in Cell Adhesion, Motility, and Protease Production Promote Metastasis
• Relatively Few Cancer Cells Survive the Voyage Through the Bloodstream
• Blood Flow and Organ-Specific Factors Determine Sites of Metastasis
• The Immune System Influences the Growth and Spread of Cancer Cells
• The Tumor Microenvironment Influences Tumor Growth, Invasion, and Metastasis
• 26.3 What Causes Cancer?
• Epidemiological Data Have Allowed Many Causes of Cancer to Be Identified
• Errors in DNA Replication or Repair Explain Many Cancers
• Inborn Errors Explain Some Cancers
• Many Chemicals Can Cause Cancer, Often After Metabolic Activation in the Liver
• DNA Mutations Triggered by Chemical Carcinogens Lead to Cancer
• Ionizing and Ultraviolet Radiation Also Cause DNA Mutations That Lead to Cancer
• Viruses and Other Infectious Agents Trigger the Development of Some Cancers
• 26.4 Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes
• Oncogenes Are Genes Whose Products Can Trigger the Development of Cancer
• Proto-oncogenes Are Converted into Oncogenes by Several Distinct Mechanisms
• Most Oncogenes Encode Components of Growth-Signaling Pathways
• Tumor Suppressor Genes Are Genes Whose Loss or Inactivation Can Lead to Cancer
• The RB Tumor Suppressor Gene Was Discovered by Studying Families with Hereditary Retinoblastoma
• The p53 Tumor Suppressor Gene Is the Most Frequently Mutated Gene in Human Cancers
• The APC Tumor Suppressor Gene Encodes a Protein That Inhibits the Wnt Signaling Pathway
• Inactivation of Some Tumor Suppressor Genes Leads to Genetic Instability
• Cancers Develop by the Stepwise Accumulation of Mutations Involving Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor G
• Epigenetic Changes in Gene Expression Influence the Properties of Cancer Cells
• Summing Up: Carcinogenesis and the Hallmarks of Cancer
• 26.5 Diagnosis, Screening, and Treatment
• Cancer Is Diagnosed by Microscopic and Molecular Examination of Tissue Specimens
• Screening Techniques for Early Detection Can Prevent Cancer Deaths
• Surgery, Radiation, and Chemotherapy Are Standard Treatments for Cancer
• Molecular Targeting Can Attack Cancer Cells More Specifically Than Chemotherapy
• Using the Immune System to Target Cancer Cells
• Cancer Treatments Can Be Tailored to Individual Patients
• Summary of Key Points
• Problem Set
• Human Connections: Molecular Sleuthing in Cancer Diagnosis
• Key Technique: Targeting Molecules in the Fight Against Cancer
• Appendix Visualizing Cells And Molecules
• Answer Key To Concept Check And Key Technique Questions
• Glossary
• Photo, Illustration, And Text Credits
• Index
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