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• Dedication
• Contents
• Preface
• About the Authors
• Chapter 1: A Tour of Computer Systems
• 1.1: Information Is Bits + Context
• 1.2: Programs Are Translated by Other Programs into Different Forms
• 1.3: It Pays to Understand How Compilation Systems Work
• 1.4: Processors Read and Interpret Instructions Stored in Memory
• 1.4.1: Hardware Organization of a System
• 1.4.2: Running the hello Program
• 1.5: Caches Matter
• 1.6: Storage Devices Form a Hierarchy
• 1.7: The Operating System Manages the Hardware
• 1.7.1: Processes
• 1.7.2: Threads
• 1.7.3: Virtual Memory
• 1.7.4: Files
• 1.8: Systems Communicate with Other Systems Using Networks
• 1.9: Important Themes
• 1.9.1: Amdahl’s Law
• 1.9.2: Concurrency and Parallelism
• 1.9.3: The Importance of Abstractions in Computer Systems
• 1.10: Summary
• Bibliographic Notes
• Solutions to Practice Problems
• Part I: Program Structure and Execution
• Chapter 2: Representing and Manipulating Information
• 2.1: Information Storage
• 2.1.1: Hexadecimal Notation
• 2.1.2: Data Sizes
• 2.1.3: Addressing and Byte Ordering
• 2.1.4: Representing Strings
• 2.1.5: Representing Code
• 2.1.6: Introduction to Boolean Algebra
• 2.1.7: Bit-Level Operations in C
• 2.1.8: Logical Operations in C
• 2.1.9: Shift Operations in C
• 2.2: Integer Representations
• 2.2.1: Integral Data Types
• 2.2.2: Unsigned Encodings
• 2.2.3: Two’s-Complement Encodings
• 2.2.4: Conversions between Signed and Unsigned
• 2.2.5: Signed versus Unsigned in C
• 2.2.6: Expanding the Bit Representation of a Number
• 2.2.7: Truncating Numbers
• 2.2.8: Advice on Signed versus Unsigned
• 2.3: Integer Arithmetic
• 2.3.1: Unsigned Addition
• 2.3.2: Two’s-Complement Addition
• 2.3.3: Two’s-Complement Negation
• 2.3.4: Unsigned Multiplication
• 2.3.5: Two’s-Complement Multiplication
• 2.3.6: Multiplying by Constant
• 2.3.7: Dividing by Powers of 2
• 2.3.8: Final Thoughts on Integer Arithmetic
• 2.4: Floating Point
• 2.4.1: Fractional Binary Numbers
• 2.4.2: IEEE Floating-Point Representation
• 2.4.3: Example Numbers
• 2.4.4: Rounding
• 2.4.5: Floating-Point Operations
• 2.4.6: Floating Point in C
• 2.5: Summary
• Bibliographic Notes
• Homework Problems
• Solutions to Practice Problems
• Chapter 3: Machine-Level Representation of Program
• 3.1: A Historical Perspective
• 3.2: Program Encodings
• 3.2.1: Machine-Level Code
• 3.2.2: Code Examples
• 3.2.3: Notes on Formatting
• 3.3: Data Formats
• 3.4: Accessing Information
• 3.4.1: Operand Specifiers
• 3.4.2: Data Movement Instructions
• 3.4.3: Data Movement Example
• 3.4.4: Pushing and Popping Stack Data
• 3.5: Arithmetic and Logical Operations
• 3.5.1: Load Effective Address
• 3.5.2: Unary and Binary Operations
• 3.5.3: Shift Operations
• 3.5.4: Discussion
• 3.5.5: Special Arithmetic Operations
• 3.6: Control
• 3.6.1: Condition Codes
• 3.6.2: Accessing the Condition Codes
• 3.6.3: Jump Instructions
• 3.6.4: Jump Instruction Encodings
• 3.6.5: Implementing Conditional Branches with Conditional Control
• 3.6.6: Implementing Conditional Branches with Conditional Moves
• 3.6.7: Loop
• 3.6.8: Switch Statements
• 3.7: Procedures
• 3.7.1: The Run-Time Stack
• 3.7.2: Control Transfer
• 3.7.3: Data Transfer
• 3.7.4: Local Storage on the Stack
• 3.7.5: Local Storage in Registers
• 3.7.6: Recursive Procedures
• 3.8: Array Allocation and Access
• 3.8.1: Basic Principles
• 3.8.2: Pointer Arithmetic
• 3.8.3: Nested Arrays
• 3.8.4: Fixed-Size Arrays
• 3.8.5: Variable-Size Arrays
• 3.9: Heterogeneous Data Structure
• 3.9.1: Structures
• 3.9.2: Unions
• 3.9.3: Data Alignment
• 3.10: Combining Control and Data in Machine-Level Programs
• 3.10.1: Understanding Pointers
• 3.10.2: Life in the RealWorld: Using the GDB Debugger
• 3.10.3: Out-of-Bounds Memory References and Buffer Overflow
• 3.10.4: Thwarting Buffer Overflow Attacks
• 3.10.5: Supporting Variable-Size Stack Frames
• 3.11: Floating-Point Code
• 3.11.1: Floating-Point Movement and Conversion Operations
• 3.11.2: Floating-Point Code in Procedures
• 3.11.3: Floating-Point Arithmetic Operations
• 3.11.4: Defining and Using Floating-Point Constants
• 3.11.5: Using Bitwise Operations in Floating-Point Code
• 3.11.6: Floating-Point Comparison Operations
• 3.11.7: Observations about Floating-Point Code
• 3.12: Summary
• Bibliographic Notes
• Homework Problems
• Solutions to Practice Problems
• Chapter 4: Processor Architecture
• 4.1: The Y86-64 Instruction Set Architecture
• 4.1.1: Programmer-Visible State
• 4.1.2: Y86-64 Instructions
• 4.1.3: Instruction Encoding
• 4.1.4: Y86-64 Exceptions
• 4.1.5: Y86-64 Programs
• 4.1.6: Some Y86-64 Instruction Details
• 4.2: Logic Design and the Hardware Control Language HCL
• 4.2.1: Logic Gates
• 4.2.2: Combinational Circuits and HCL Boolean Expressions
• 4.2.3: Word-Level Combinational Circuits and HCL Integer Expressions
• 4.2.4: Set Membership
• 4.2.5: Memory and Clocking
• 4.3: Sequential Y86-64 Implementations
• 4.3.1: Organizing Processing into Stages
• 4.3.2: SEQ Hardware Structure
• 4.3.3: SEQ Timing
• 4.3.4: SEQ Stage Implementations
• 4.4: General Principles of Pipelining
• 4.4.1: Computational Pipelines
• 4.4.2: A Detailed Look at Pipeline Operation
• 4.4.3: Limitations of Pipelining
• 4.4.4: Pipelining a System with Feedback
• 4.5: Pipelined Y86-64 Implementations
• 4.5.1: SEQ+: Rearranging the Computation Stages
• 4.5.2: Inserting Pipeline Registers
• 4.5.3: Rearranging and Relabeling Signals
• 4.5.4: Next PC Prediction
• 4.5.5: Pipeline Hazards
• 4.5.6: Exception Handling
• 4.5.7: PIPE Stage Implementations
• 4.5.8: Pipeline Control Logic
• 4.5.9: Performance Analysis
• 4.5.10: Unfinished Business
• 4.6: Summary
• 4.6.1: Y86-64 Simulators
• Bibliographic Notes
• Homework Problems
• Solutions to Practice Problems
• Chapter 5: Optimizing Program Performance
• 5.1: Capabilities and Limitations of Optimizing Compilers
• 5.2: Expressing Program Performance
• 5.3: Program Example
• 5.4: Eliminating Loop Inefficiencies
• 5.5: Reducing Procedure Calls
• 5.6: Eliminating Unneeded Memory References
• 5.7: Understanding Modern Processors
• 5.7.1: Overall Operation
• 5.7.2: Functional Unit Performance
• 5.7.3: An Abstract Model of Processor Operation
• 5.8: Loop Unrolling
• 5.9: Enhancing Parallelism
• 5.9.1: Multiple Accumulators
• 5.9.2: Reassociation Transformation
• 5.10: Summary of Results for Optimizing Combining Code
• 5.11: Some Limiting Factors
• 5.11.1: Register Spilling
• 5.11.2: Branch Prediction and Misprediction Penalties
• 5.12: Understanding Memory Performance
• 5.12.1: Load Performance
• 5.12.2: Store Performance
• 5.13: Life in the Real World: Performance Improvement Techniques
• 5.14: Identifying and Eliminating Performance Bottlenecks
• 5.14.1: Program Profiling
• 5.14.2: Using a Profiler to Guide Optimization
• 5.15: Summary
• Bibliographic Notes
• Homework Problems
• Solutions to Practice Problems
• Chapter 6: The Memory Hierarchy
• 6.1: Storage Technologie
• 6.1.1: Random Access Memory
• 6.1.2: Disk Storage
• 6.1.3: Solid State Disks
• 6.1.4: Storage Technology Trends
• 6.2: Locality
• 6.2.1: Locality of References to Program Data
• 6.2.2: Locality of Instruction Fetches
• 6.2.3: Summary of Locality
• 6.3: The Memory Hierarchy
• 6.3.1: Caching in the Memory Hierarchy
• 6.3.2: Summary of Memory Hierarchy Concepts
• 6.4: Cache Memories
• 6.4.1: Generic Cache Memory Organization
• 6.4.2: Direct-Mapped Caches
• 6.4.3: Set Associative Caches
• 6.4.4: Fully Associative Caches
• 6.4.5: Issues with Writes
• 6.4.6: Anatomy of a Real Cache Hierarchy
• 6.4.7: Performance Impact of Cache Parameters
• 6.5: Writing Cache-Friendly Code
• 6.6: Putting It Together: The Impact of Caches on Program Performance
• 6.6.1: The Memory Mountain
• 6.6.2: Rearranging Loops to Increase Spatial Locality
• 6.6.3: Exploiting Locality in Your Programs
• 6.7: Summary
• Bibliographic Notes
• Homework Problems
• Solutions to Practice Problems
• Part II: Running Programs on a System
• Chapter 7: Linking
• 7.1: Compiler Drivers
• 7.2: Static Linking
• 7.3: Object Files
• 7.4: Relocatable Object Files
• 7.5: Symbols and Symbol Tables
• 7.6: Symbol Resolution
• 7.6.1: How Linkers Resolve Duplicate Symbol Names
• 7.6.2: Linking with Static Libraries
• 7.6.3: How Linkers Use Static Libraries to Resolve References
• 7.7: Relocation
• 7.7.1: Relocation Entries
• 7.7.2: Relocating Symbol References
• 7.8: Executable Object Files
• 7.9: Loading Executable Object Files
• 7.10: Dynamic Linking with Shared Libraries
• 7.11: Loading and Linking Shared Libraries from Applications
• 7.12: Position-Independent Code (PIC)
• 7.13: Library Interpositioning
• 7.13.1: Compile-Time Interpositioning
• 7.13.2: Link-Time Interpositioning
• 7.13.3: Run-Time Interpositioning
• 7.14: Tools for Manipulating Object Files
• 7.15: Summary
• Bibliographic Notes
• Homework Problems
• Solutions to Practice Problems
• Chapter 8: Exceptional Control Flow
• 8.1: Exceptions
• 8.1.1: Exception Handling
• 8.1.2: Classes of Exceptions
• 8.1.3: Exceptions in Linux/x86-64 Systems
• 8.2: Processes
• 8.2.1: Logical Control Flow
• 8.2.2: Concurrent Flows
• 8.2.3: Private Address Space
• 8.2.4: User and Kernel Modes
• 8.2.5: Context Switches
• 8.3: System Call Error Handling
• 8.4: Process Control
• 8.4.1: Obtaining Process IDs
• 8.4.2: Creating and Terminating Processes
• 8.4.3: Reaping Child Processes
• 8.4.4: Putting Processes to Sleep
• 8.4.5: Loading and Running Programs
• 8.4.6: Using fork and execve to Run Programs
• 8.5: Signals
• 8.5.1: Signal Terminology
• 8.5.2: Sending Signals
• 8.5.3: Receiving Signals
• 8.5.4: Blocking and Unblocking Signals
• 8.5.5: Writing Signal Handlers
• 8.5.6: Synchronizing Flows to Avoid Nasty Concurrency Bugs
• 8.5.7: ExplicitlyWaiting for Signals
• 8.6: Nonlocal Jumps
• 8.7: Tools for Manipulating Processes
• 8.8: Summary
• Bibliographic Notes
• Homework Problems
• Solutions to Practice Problems
• Chapter 9: Virtual Memory
• 9.1: Physical and Virtual Addressing
• 9.2: Address Spaces
• 9.3: VM as a Tool for Caching
• 9.3.1: DRAM Cache Organization
• 9.3.2: Page Tables
• 9.3.3: Page Hits
• 9.3.4: Page Faults
• 9.3.5: Allocating Pages
• 9.3.6: Locality to the Rescue Again
• 9.4: VM as a Tool for Memory Management
• 9.5: VM as a Tool for Memory Protection
• 9.6: Address Translation
• 9.6.1: Integrating Caches and VM
• 9.6.2: Speeding Up Address Translation with a TLB
• 9.6.3: Multi-Level Page Tables
• 9.6.4: Putting It Together: End-to-End Address Translation
• 9.7: Case Study: The Intel Core i7/Linux Memory System
• 9.7.1: Core i7 Address Translation
• 9.7.2: Linux Virtual Memory System
• 9.8: Memory Mapping
• 9.8.1: Shared Objects Revisited
• 9.8.2: The fork Function Revisited
• 9.8.3: The execve Function Revisited
• 9.8.4: User-Level Memory Mapping with the mmap Function
• 9.9: Dynamic Memory Allocation
• 9.9.1: The malloc and free Functions
• 9.9.2: Why Dynamic Memory Allocation?
• 9.9.3: Allocator Requirements and Goals
• 9.9.4: Fragmentation
• 9.9.5: Implementation Issues
• 9.9.6: Implicit Free Lists
• 9.9.7: Placing Allocated Blocks
• 9.9.8: Splitting Free Blocks
• 9.9.9: Getting Additional Heap Memory
• 9.9.10: Coalescing Free Blocks
• 9.9.11: Coalescing with Boundary Tags
• 9.9.12: Putting It Together: Implementing a Simple Allocator
• 9.9.13: Explicit Free Lists
• 9.9.14: Segregated Free Lists
• 9.10: Garbage Collection
• 9.10.1: Garbage Collector Basics
• 9.10.2: Mark&Sweep Garbage Collectors
• 9.10.3: Conservative Mark&Sweep for C Programs
• 9.11: Common Memory-Related Bugs in C Programs
• 9.11.1: Dereferencing Bad Pointers
• 9.11.2: Reading Uninitialized Memory
• 9.11.3: Allowing Stack Buffer Overflows
• 9.11.4: Assuming That Pointers and the Objects They Point to Are the Same Size
• 9.11.5: Making Off-by-One Errors
• 9.11.6: Referencing a Pointer Instead of the Object It Points To
• 9.11.7: Misunderstanding Pointer Arithmetic
• 9.11.8: Referencing Nonexistent Variables
• 9.11.9: Referencing Data in Free Heap Blocks
• 9.11.10: Introducing Memory Leaks
• 9.12: Summary
• Bibliographic Notes
• Homework Problems
• Solutions to Practice Problems
• Part III: Interaction and Communication between Programs
• Chapter 10: System-Level I/O
• 10.1: Unix I/O
• 10.2: Files
• 10.3: Opening and Closing Files
• 10.4: Reading and Writing Files
• 10.5: Robust Reading and Writing with the Rio Package
• 10.5.1: Rio Unbuffered Input and Output Functions
• 10.5.2: Rio Buffered Input Functions
• 10.6: Reading File Metadata
• 10.7: Reading Directory Contents
• 10.8: Sharing Files
• 10.9: I/O Redirection
• 10.10: Standard I/O
• 10.11: Putting It Together: Which I/O Functions Should I Use?
• 10.12: Summary
• Bibliographic Notes
• Homework Problems
• Solutions to Practice Problems
• Chapter 11: Network Programming
• 11.1: The Client-Server Programming Model
• 11.2: Networks
• 11.3: The Global IP Internet
• 11.3.1: IP Addresses
• 11.3.2: Internet Domain Names
• 11.3.3: Internet Connections
• 11.4: The Sockets Interface
• 11.4.1: Socket Address Structures
• 11.4.2: The socket Function
• 11.4.3: The connect Function
• 11.4.4: The bind Function
• 11.4.5: The listen Function
• 11.4.6: The accept Function
• 11.4.7: Host and Service Conversion
• 11.4.8: Helper Functions for the Sockets Interface
• 11.4.9: Example Echo Client and Server
• 11.5: Web Servers
• 11.5.1: Web Basics
• 11.5.2: Web Content
• 11.5.3: HTTP Transactions
• 11.5.4: Serving Dynamic Content
• 11.6: Putting It Together: The Tiny Web Server
• 11.7: Summary
• Bibliographic Notes
• Homework Problems
• Solutions to Practice Problems
• Chapter 12: Concurrent Programming
• 12.1: Concurrent Programming with Processes
• 12.1.1: A Concurrent Server Based on Processes
• 12.1.2: Pros and Cons of Processes
• 12.2: Concurrent Programming with I/O Multiplexing
• 12.2.1: A Concurrent Event-Driven Server Based on I/O Multiplexing
• 12.2.2: Pros and Cons of I/O Multiplexing
• 12.3: Concurrent Programming with Threads
• 12.3.1: Thread Execution Model
• 12.3.2: Posix Threads
• 12.3.3: Creating Threads
• 12.3.4: Terminating Threads
• 12.3.5: Reaping Terminated Threads
• 12.3.6: Detaching Threads
• 12.3.7: Initializing Threads
• 12.3.8: A Concurrent Server Based on Threads
• 12.4: Shared Variables in Threaded Programs
• 12.4.1: Threads Memory Model
• 12.4.2: Mapping Variables to Memory
• 12.4.3: Shared Variables
• 12.5: Synchronizing Threads with Semaphores
• 12.5.1: Progress Graphs
• 12.5.2: Semaphores
• 12.5.3: Using Semaphores for Mutual Exclusion
• 12.5.4: Using Semaphores to Schedule Shared Resources
• 12.5.5: Putting It Together: A Concurrent Server Based on Prethreading
• 12.6: Using Threads for Parallelism
• 12.7: Other Concurrency Issues
• 12.7.1: Thread Safety
• 12.7.2: Reentrancy
• 12.7.3: Using Existing Library Functions in Threaded Programs
• 12.7.4: Races
• 12.7.5: Deadlocks
• 12.8: Summary
• Bibliographic Notes
• Homework Problems
• Solutions to Practice Problems
• Appendix A: Error Handling
• A.1: Error Handling in Unix Systems
• A.2: Error-Handling Wrappers
• References
• Index
• Back Cover