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• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Brief Contents
• Contents
• Preface
• About the Authors
• Special Tips for Students
• 1 Introducing Social Psychology
• Defining Social Psychology
• TRY IT! Conflicting Social Influences
• Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common Sense
• How Social Psychology Differs From Its Closest Cousins
• TRY IT! Social Situations and Shyness
• The Power of the Situation
• Underestimating the Power of the Situation
• The Importance of Construal
• #trending Medals for Sustainability!
• Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives
• The Self‐Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About Ourselves
• Suffering and Self‐Justification
• The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate
• Why Study Social Psychology?
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• 2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research
• Social Psychology: An Empirical Science
• TRY IT! Social Psychology Quiz: What’s Your Prediction?
• Formulating Hypotheses and Theories
• Inspiration from Previous Theories and Research
• Hypotheses Based on Personal Observations
• Research Designs
• The Observational Method: Describing Social Behavior
• Ethnography
• Archival Analysis
• Limits of the Observational Method
• The Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior
• Surveys
• Limits of the Correlational Method: Correlation does not Equal Causation
• TRY IT! Correlation and Causation: Knowing the Difference
• The Experimental Method: Answering Causal Questions
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Internal Validity in Experiments
• External Validity in Experiments
• Field Experiments
• Replications and Meta‐Analysis
• #trending Correlation Does Not Equal Causation
• Basic Versus Applied Research
• New Frontiers in Social Psychological Research
• Culture and Social Psychology
• Social Neuroscience
• Ethical Issues in Social Psychology
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• 3 Social Cognition: How We ThinkAbout the Social World
• On Automatic Pilot: Low‐Effort Thinking
• People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic Thinking With Schemas
• Which Schemas Do We Use? Accessibility and Priming
• Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self‐Fulfilling Prophecy
• #trending Do You Believe in Astrology?
• Types of Automatic Thinking
• Automatic Goal Pursuit
• Automatic Thinking and Metaphors About the Body and the Mind
• Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Judgmental Heuristics
• How Easily Does it Come to Mind? The Availability Heuristic
• How Similar is A to B? The Representativeness Heuristic
• Personality Tests and The Representativeness Heuristic
• TRY IT! Reasoning Quiz
• Cultural Differences in Social Cognition
• Cultural Determinants of Schemas
• Holistic Versus Analytic Thinking
• Controlled Social Cognition: High‐Effort Thinking
• Controlled Thinking and Free Will
• TRY IT! Can You Predict Your (or Your Friend’s) Future?
• Mentally Undoing the Past: Counterfactual Reasoning
• Improving Human Thinking
• TRY IT! How Well Do You Reason?
• Watson Revisited
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• 4 Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People
• Nonverbal Communication
• Try It! Using Your Voice as a Nonverbal Cue
• Facial Expressions of Emotion
• Evolution and Facial Expressions
• Why is Decoding Sometimes Difficult?
• Culture and the Channels of Nonverbal Communication
• First Impressions: Quick But Long‐Lasting
• #trending First Impressions Formed Online
• The Lingering Influence of Initial Impressions
• Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question
• The Nature of the Attribution Process
• The Covariation Model: Internal Versus External Attributions
• The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists
• The Role of Perceptual Salience in the Fundamental Attribution Error
• The Two‐Step Attribution Process
• Self‐Serving Attributions
• The “Bias Blind Spot”
• Culture and Social Perception
• Holistic Versus Analytic Thinking
• Social Neuroscience Evidence
• Cultural Differences in the Fundamental Attribution Error
• Culture and Other Attributional Biases
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• 5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context
• The Origins and Nature of the Self‐Concept
• Cultural Influences on the Self‐Concept
• TRY IT! A Measure of Independence and Interdependence
• Functions of the Self
• Self‐Knowledge
• Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
• Focusing on the Self: Self‐Awareness Theory
• TRY IT! Measure Your Private Self‐Consciousness
• Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know
• Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behavior
• Self‐Perception Theory
• Understanding Our Emotions: The Two‐Factor Theory of Emotion
• Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal
• Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation
• Mind‐sets and Motivation
• #trending Growth Mindset in the Classroom
• Using Other People to Know Ourselves
• Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others
• Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People’s Views
• Self‐Control: The Executive Function of the Self
• Impression Management: All the World’s a Stage
• Ingratiation and Self‐Handicapping
• Culture, Impression Management, and Self‐Enhancement
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• 6 Cognitive Dissonance and the Need to Protect Our Self‐Esteem
• The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: Protecting Our Self‐Esteem
• Decisions, Decisions, Decisions
• Distorting Our Likes and Dislikes
• The Permanence of the Decision
• Creating the Illusion of Irrevocability
• The Justification of Effort
• Counterattitudinal Behavior
• Counterattitudinal Behavior Toward Consequential Issues
• The Ben Franklin Effect: Justifying Acts of Kindness
• Dehumanizing the Enemy: Justifying Cruelty
• TRY IT! The Internal Consequences of Doing Good
• Justifying Our Own Immoral Acts
• Avoiding Temptations
• The Hypocrisy Paradigm
• Dissonance Across Cultures
• Advances and Extensions of Cognitive Dissonance Theory
• Self‐Affirmation Theory
• Try It! Values Affirmation Writing Exercise
• Dissonance in Close Relationships: Self‐Evaluation Maintenance Theory
• Some Concluding Thoughts on Dissonance and Self‐Esteem
• #trending Law and Cognitive Dissonance
• Overcoming Dissonance
• Narcissism and the Dangers of Too Much Self‐Esteem
• TRY IT! Measuring Your Narcissism
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• 7 Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings
• The Nature and Origin of Attitudes
• Where Do Attitudes Come From?
• Cognitively Based Attitudes
• Affectively Based Attitudes
• Try It! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes
• Behaviorally Based Attitudes
• Explicit Versus Implicit Attitudes
• When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?
• Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors
• Predicting Deliberative Behaviors
• Specific Attitudes
• Subjective Norms
• Perceived Behavioral Control
• #trending Predicting Environmentally Friendly Action
• How Do Attitudes Change?
• Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior: Cognitive Dissonance Theory Revisited
• Persuasive Communications and Attitude Change
• The Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion
• The Motivation to Pay Attention to the Arguments
• The Ability to Pay Attention to the Arguments
• How to Achieve Long‐Lasting Attitude Change
• Emotion and Attitude Change
• Fear‐Arousing Communications
• Emotions as a Heuristic 
• Emotion and Different Types of Attitudes
• Attitude Change and the Body
• The Power of Advertising
• How Advertising Works
• Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control?
• Debunking the Claims about Subliminal Advertising
• Laboratory Evidence for Subliminal Influence
• Try It! Consumer Brand Attitudes
• Advertising and Culture
• Resisting Persuasive Messages
• Attitude Inoculation
• Being Alert to Product Placement
• Resisting Peer Pressure
• When Persuasion Attempts Backfire: Reactance Theory
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• 8 Conformity and Obedience: Influencing Behavior
• Conformity: When and Why
• Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know What’s “Right”
• The Importance of Being Accurate
• When Informational Conformity Backfires
• When Will People Conform to Informational Social Influence?
• When the Situation is Ambiguous
• When the Situation is a Crisis
• When Other People are Experts
• Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted
• Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch Line‐Judgment Studies
• The Importance of Being Accurate, Revisited
• The Consequences of Resisting Normative Social Influence
• TRY IT! Unveiling Normative Social Influence by Breaking the Rules
• When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence?
• When the Group is Important
• When One Has No Allies in the Group 
• When the Group’s Culture is Collectivistic
• #trending Social Norms and Bigotry
• Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many
• Conformity Tactics
• The Role of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms
• Using Norms to Change Behavior: Beware the “Boomerang Effect”
• Other Tactics of Social Influence
• Obedience to Authority
• The Milgram Study
• The Role of Normative Social Influence
• The Role of Informational Social Influence
• Other Reasons Why We Obey
• Adhering to the Wrong Norm
• Self‐Justification
• The Loss of Personal Responsibility
• The Obedience Studies, Then and Now
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• 9 Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups
• What Is a Group?
• Why Do People Join Groups?
• The Composition and Functions of Groups
• Social Norms
• Social Roles
• Group Cohesiveness
• Group Diversity
• #trending Cooperative and Corruptive Tendencies
• Individual Behavior in a Group Setting
• Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others Energizes Us
• Simple Versus Difficult Tasks
• Arousal and the Dominant Response 
• Why the Presence of Others Causes Arousal
• Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others Relaxes Us
• Gender and Cultural Differences in Social Loafing: Who Slacks Off the Most?
• Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd
• Deindividuation Makes People Feel Less Accountable
• Deindividuation Increases Obedience to Group Norms 
• Deindividuation Online
• Group Decisions: Are Two (or More) Heads Better Than One?
• Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit Good Problem Solving
• Failure to Share Unique Information
• Groupthink: Many Heads, One Mind
• Group Polarization: Going to Extremes
• Leadership in Groups
• Leadership and Personality 
• Leadership Styles
• The Right Person in the Right Situation
• Gender and Leadership 
• Culture and Leadership
• Conflict and Cooperation
• Social Dilemmas
• Try It! Beyond the two‐person Prisoner’s Dilemma: The Public Goods Game
• Increasing Cooperation in the Prisoner’s Dilemma
• Using Threats to Resolve Conflict
• Effects of Communication
• Negotiation and Bargaining
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• 10 Attraction and Relationships: From Initial Impressions to Long‐Term Intimacy
• What Predicts Attraction?
• The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect
• Similarity
• Opinions and Personality
• Interests and Experiences
• Appearance
• Genetics
• Some Final Comments About Similarity
• #trending “Hook‐Up Culture” and Today’s Youth
• Reciprocal Liking
• Physical Attractiveness
• What is Attractive?
• Cultural Standards of Beauty 
• The Power of Familiarity 
• Assumptions About Attractive People
• Evolution and Mate Selection
• Evolution and Sex Differences
• Alternate Perspectives On Sex Differences
• Making Connections in the Digital World
• Attraction 2.0: Mate Preference in an Online Era
• The Promise and Pitfalls of Meeting People Online
• Love and Close Relationships
• Defining Love: Companionship and Passion
• Try It! Passionate Love Scale
• Culture and Love
• Attachment Styles in Intimate Relationships
• Your Body and Brain in Love
• Assessing Relationships: Satisfaction and Breaking Up
• Theories of Relationship Satisfaction
• Social Exchange Theory
• Equity Theory
• The Process and Experience of Breaking Up
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• 11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help?
• Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help?
• Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes
• Kin Selection
• The Reciprocity Norm
• Try It! The Dictator Game
• Group Selection
• Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping
• Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping
• Personal Qualities and Prosocial Behavior: Why Do Some People Help More Than Others?
• Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality
• Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior
• Try It! Empathic Concern
• Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior
• Religion and Prosocial Behavior
• #trending When Altruistic Behavior Becomes Risky
• The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior
• Effects of Positive Moods: Feel Good, Do Good
• Feel Bad, Do Good
• Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior: When Will People Help?
• Environment: Rural Versus Urban
• Residential Mobility
• The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect
• Noticing an Event
• Interpreting the Event as an Emergency
• Assuming Responsibility
• Knowing How to Help
• Deciding to Implement the Help
• Diffusion of Responsibility in Cyberspace
• Effects of the Media: Video Games and Music Lyrics
• How Can Helping Be Increased?
• Increasing the Likelihood That Bystanders Will Intervene
• Increasing Volunteerism
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• 12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It?
• Is Aggression Innate, Learned, or Optional?
• The Evolutionary View
• Aggression in Other Animals
• Culture and Aggression
• Changes in Aggression Across Time and Cultures
• Cultures of Honor
• Gender and Aggression
• Physical Aggression
• Relational Aggression
• Learning to Behave Aggressively
• Some Physiological Influences
• The Effects of Alcohol
• The Effects of Pain and Heat
• Social Situations and Aggression
• Frustration and Aggression
• Provocation and Reciprocation
• Try It! Video Games and Aggression
• Weapons as Aggressive Cues
• Putting the Elements Together: The Case of Sexual Assault
• Motivations for Rape
• Sexual Scripts and the Problem of Consent
• Violence and the Media
• Studying the Effects of Media Violence
• Experimental Studies
• Longitudinal Studies
• The Problem of Determining Cause and Effect
• How to Decrease Aggression
• Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggression?
• Using Punishment on Violent Adults
• Can We Release Anger by Indulging It?
• The Effects of Aggressive Acts on Subsequent Aggression
• Blaming the Victim of Our Aggression
• What Are We Supposed to Do with Our Anger?
• Venting Versus Self‐Awareness
• Training in Communication and Problem‐Solving Skills
• Try It! Controlling Your Anger
• Getting Apologies Right
• Countering Dehumanization by Building Empathy
• #trending “Re‐accommodation”: The United Airlines Debacle
• Disrupting the Rejection‐Rage Cycle
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• 13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures
• Defining Prejudice
• The Cognitive Component: Stereotypes
• Are Positive Stereotypes Good?
• Try It! Stereotypes and Aggression
• The Affective Component: Emotions
• The Behavioral Component: Discrimination
• Try It! Identifying and Changing Your Prejudices
• Institutionalized Discrimination
• Everyday Discrimination
• From Prejudice to Discrimination
• Detecting Hidden Prejudices
• Ways of Identifying Suppressed Prejudices
• Ways of Identifying Implicit Prejudices
• The Effects of Prejudice on the Victim
• The Self‐Fulfilling Prophecy
• Social Identity Threat
• Causes of Prejudice
• Pressures to Conform: Normative Rules
• #trending Everyday Discrimination in Professional Sports
• Social Identity Theory: Us versus Them
• Ethnocentrism
• In‐Group Bias 
• Out‐Group Homogeneity 
• Blaming the Victim
• Justifying Feelings of Entitlement and Superiority
• Realistic Conflict Theory
• Reducing Prejudice
• The Contact Hypothesis
• Where Contact Can go Wrong
• Cooperation and Interdependence: The Jigsaw Classroom
• Why Does Jigsaw Work?
• Try It! Jigsaw‐Type Group Study
• The Gradual Spread of Cooperative and Interdependent Learning
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• Social Psychology in Action 1: Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future
• Applied Research in Social Psychology
• Capitalizing on the Experimental Method
• Assessing the Effectiveness of Interventions
• Potential Risks of Social Interventions
• Social Psychology to the Rescue
• Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable Future
• Conveying and Changing Social Norms
• Try It! Reducing Littering with Descriptive Norms
• Keeping Track of Consumption
• Introducing a Little Competitiveness
• Inducing Hypocrisy
• Removing Small Barriers to Achieve Big Changes
• Happiness and a Sustainable Lifestyle
• What Makes People Happy?
• Satisfying Relationships
• Flow: Becoming Engaged in Something you Enjoy 
• Accumulate Experiences, Not Things
• Helping Others
• Try It! Applying the Research to Your Own Life
• Do People Know What Makes Them Happy?
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• Social Psychology in Action 2: Social Psychology and Health
• Stress and Human Health
• Resilience
• Effects of Negative Life Events
• Limits of Stress Inventories
• Try It! The College Life Stress Inventory
• Perceived Stress and Health
• Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived Control
• Increasing Perceived Control in Nursing Homes 
• Disease, Control, and Well‐Being
• Coping with Stress
• Gender Differences in Coping with Stress
• Social Support: Getting Help from Others
• Try It! Social Support
• Reframing: Finding Meaning in Traumatic Events
• Prevention: Promoting Healthier Behavior
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• Social Psychology in Action 3: Social Psychology and the Law
• Eyewitness Testimony
• Why Are Eyewitnesses Often Wrong?
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval
• Judging Whether Eyewitnesses Are Mistaken
• Responding Quickly
• Post‐Identification Feedback
• Try It! The Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony
• The Recovered Memory Debate
• Juries: Group Processes in Action
• How Jurors Process Information during the Trial
• Confessions: Are They Always What They Seem?
• Deliberations in the Jury Room
• Summary
• Test Yourself
• Glossary
• References
• Credits
• Name Index
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• Subject Index
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