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• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• About the Authors
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Acknowledgments for the Global Edition
• Contents
• 1. An Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology
• Section 1: an Introduction to Studying the Human Body
• 1.1. Using Your Textbook Effectively is Key to Your Success
• 1.2. Comprehending the Art is Essential to Understanding A&P
• 1.3. Break Down the Art in Step-Wise Fashion to Learn the Topic
• 1.4. Orient Yourself to All Art in the Same Way
• 1.5. The Learning Outcomes Correspond by Number to the Chapter’s Modules and Indicate what you Sho
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: A&P in Perspective
• 1.6. Focused Study is Important for Learning Anatomy and Physiology
• 1.7. Organisms Share Common Characteristics and Processes
• 1.8. Anatomy is the Study of Structure and Physiology is the Study of Function
• 1.9. Structure and Function are Interrelated
• Section 2: Review
• Section 3: Levels of Organization
• 1.10. The Human Body has Multiple Interdependent Levels of Organization
• 1.11. Cells are the Smallest Units of Life
• 1.12. Tissues are Specialized Groups of Cells and Cell Products
• 1.13. Organs and Organ Systems Perform Vital Functions
• 1.14. Organs of the Integumentary, Skeletal, and Muscular Systems Support and Move the Body and Orga
• 1.15. Organs of the Endocrine System Secrete Chemicals that are Carried by Organs of the Cardiovascu
• 1.16. Organs of the Digestive System Make Nutrients Available and, with the Urinary System, Excrete
• Section 3: Review
• Section 4: Homeostasis
• 1.17. Homeostatic Regulation Relies on a Receptor, a Control Center, and an Effector
• 1.18. Negative Feedback Provides Stability and Positive Feedback Accelerates a Process to Completion
• Smartart Video: Homeostatic Regulation
• Section 4: Review
• Section 5: Anatomical Terms
• 1.19. Anatomical Terms have a Long and Varied History
• 1.20. Superficial Anatomy and Regional Anatomy Indicate Locations on or in the Body
• 1.21. Directional Terms and Sectional Planes Describe Specific Points of Reference
• 1.22. Body Cavities Protect Internal Organs and Allow Them to Change Shape
• Section 5: Review
• Chapter 1: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 2. Chemical Level of Organization
• Section 1: Atoms, Molecules, and Compounds
• 2.1. Atoms are the Basic Particles of Matter
• 2.2. Typical Atoms Contain Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
• 2.3. Electrons Occupy Various Energy Levels
• 2.4. The Most Common Chemical Bonds are Ionic Bonds and Covalent Bonds
• 2.5. Matter May Exist as a Solid, a Liquid, or a Gas
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Chemical Reactions
• 2.6. Chemical Reactions and Energy Transfer are Essential to Cellular Functions
• 2.7. Chemical Notation is a Concise Method of Describing Chemical Reactions
• 2.8. Three Basic Types of Chemical Reactions are Important for Understanding Physiology
• 2.9. Enzymes Lower the Activation Energy Requirements of Chemical Reactions
• Section 2: Review
• Section 3: Water in the Body
• 2.10. Water has Several Important Properties
• 2.11. Physiological Systems Depend on Water
• 2.12. Regulation of Body Fluid pH is Vital for Homeostasis
• Section 3: Review
• Section 4: Organic Compounds
• 2.13. All Organic Compounds Contain Carbon and Hydrogen Atoms
• 2.14. Carbohydrates Contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, Usually in a 1:2:1 Ratio
• 2.15. Lipids Often have a Carbon-to-Hydrogen Ratio of 1:2
• 2.16. Eicosanoids, Steroids, Phospholipids, and Glycolipids have Diverse Functions
• 2.17. Proteins are Formed from Amino Acids
• 2.18. Enzymes are Proteins with Important Regulatory Functions
• 2.19. High-Energy Compounds May Store and Transfer a Portion of Energy Released During Enzymatic Rea
• 2.20. DNA and RNA are Nucleic Acids
• Section 4: Review
• Chapter 2: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 3. Cellular Level of Organization
• Section 1: Introduction to Cells
• 3.1. Cellular Differentiation Produces Specialized Cells
• 3.2. Cells are the Smallest Living Units of Life
• 3.3. The Plasma Membrane Isolates the Cell from Its Environment and Performs Varied Functions
• 3.4. The Cytoskeleton Plays Both a Structural and a Functional Role
• 3.5. Ribosomes are Responsible for Protein Synthesis and are Often Associated with the Endoplasmic R
• 3.6. The Golgi Apparatus is a Packaging Center
• 3.7. Mitochondria are the Powerhouses of the Cell
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Structures and Function of the Nucleus
• 3.8. The Nucleus is the Control Center for Cellular Homeostasis
• 3.9. The Nucleus Contains Dna, RNA, Organizing Proteins, and Enzymes
• 3.10. Protein Synthesis Involves Dna, Enzymes, and Three Types of RNA
• 3.11. Transcription Encodes Genetic Instructions on a Strand of RNA
• Smartart Video: Transcription
• 3.12. Translation Builds Polypeptides as Directed by an Mrna Strand
• Smartart Video: Translation
• Section 2: Review
• Section 3: How Substances Enter and Leave the Cell
• 3.13. The Plasma Membrane is a Selectively Permeable Membrane
• 3.14. Diffusion is Passive Movement Driven by Concentration Differences
• 3.15. Osmosis is the Diffusion of Water Molecules Across a Selectively Permeable Membrane
• 3.16. in Carrier-Mediated Transport, Integral Proteins Facilitate Membrane Passage
• 3.17. in Vesicular Transport, Vesicles Selectively Carry Materials into or Out of the Cell
• Section 3: Review
• Section 4: Cell Life Cycle
• 3.18. Interphase and Cell Division Make Up the Life Cycle of a Cell
• 3.19. During Interphase, the Cell Prepares for Cell Division
• 3.20. Mitosis Distributes Chromosomes Before Cytokinesis Separates the Daughter Cells
• 3.21. Clinical Module: Tumors and Cancer are Characterized by Abnormal Cell Growth and Division
• Section 4: Review
• Chapter 3: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 4. Tissue Level of Organization
• Section 1: Epithelial Tissue
• 4.1. Four Types of Tissue Make Up the Body
• 4.2. Microscopes are Used to Study Cells and Tissues
• 4.3. Epithelial Tissue Covers Surfaces, Lines Cavities, and Forms Secretory Glands
• 4.4. Epithelial Cells are Extensively Interconnected, Both Structurally and Functionally
• 4.5. The Cells in a Squamous Epithelium are Flat and Irregularly Shaped
• 4.6. Cuboidal and Transitional Epithelia Line Several Passageways and Chambers Connected to the Exte
• 4.7. Columnar Epithelia Absorb Substances and Protect the Body from Digestive Chemicals
• 4.8. Glandular Epithelia are Specialized for Secretion
• 4.9. Exocrine Glands can be Classified by Structure
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Connective Tissue
• 4.10. A Matrix Surrounds Connective Tissue Cells
• 4.11. Loose Connective Tissues Support Other Tissue Types
• 4.12. Dense Connective Tissues are Dominated by Extracellular Fibers, Whereas Fluid Connective Tissu
• 4.13. Cartilage Provides a Flexible Support for Body Structures
• 4.14. Bone Provides a Strong Framework for the Body
• 4.15. Tissue Membranes are Physical Barriers, and Fasciae Support and Surround Organs
• Section 2: Review
• Section 3: Muscle Tissue and Nervous Tissue
• 4.16. Muscle Tissue Outweighs Nervous Tissue by 25:1
• 4.17. Muscle Tissue is Specialized for Contraction and Nervous Tissue is Specialized for Communicati
• 4.18. Clinical Module: The Response to Tissue Injury Involves Inflammation and Regeneration
• Section 3: Review
• Chapter 4: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 5. The Integumentary System
• Section 1: Functional Anatomy of the Skin
• 5.1. The Integumentary System Consists of the Skin and Various Accessory Structures
• 5.2. The Epidermis is Composed of Strata (Layers) that have Various Functions
• 5.3. Factors Influencing Skin Color Include Epidermal Pigmentation and Dermal Circulation
• 5.4. The Subcutaneous Layer Connects the Dermis to Underlying Tissues
• 5.5. Clinical Module: Burns are Significant Injuries that Damage Skin Integrity
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Accessory Structures of the Skin
• 5.6. Hair Follicles, Exocrine Glands, and Nails are Also Components of the Integumentary System
• 5.7. Hair is Composed of Dead, Keratinized Cells Produced in a Specialized Hair Follicle
• 5.8. Sebaceous Glands and Sweat Glands are Exocrine Glands in the Skin
• 5.9. Nails are Thick Sheets of Keratinized Epidermal Cells that Protect the Tips of Fingers and Toes
• 5.10. Clinical Module: Age-Related Changes Affect the Integument
• 5.11. The Integument Responds to Circulating Hormones and has Endocrine Functions that are Stimulate
• 5.12. Clinical Module: The Integument can Often Repair Itself, Even After Extensive Damage
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 5: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 6. Bones and Bone Structure
• Section 1: Introduction to the Structure and Growth of Bones
• 6.1. The Skeletal System is Made Up of the Axial and Appendicular Divisions
• 6.2. Bones are Classified According to Shape and Structure and have Varied Bone Markings
• 6.3. Long Bones Transmit Forces Along the Shaft and have a Rich Blood Supply
• 6.4. Bone has a Calcified Matrix Maintained and Altered by Osteogenic Cells, Osteoblasts, Osteocytes
• 6.5. Compact Bone Consists of Parallel Osteons, and Spongy Bone Consists of a Network of Trabeculae
• 6.6. Appositional Bone Growth Involves the Periosteum and the Endosteum
• 6.7. Endochondral Ossification Replaces a Cartilage Model with Bone
• Smartart Video: Endochondral Ossification
• 6.8. Intramembranous Ossification Forms Bone Without a Prior Cartilage Model
• 6.9. Clinical Module: Abnormalities of Bone Growth and Development Produce Recognizable Physical Sig
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Physiology of Bones
• 6.10. Bones Play an Important Role as Mineral Reservoirs
• 6.11. The Primary Hormones Regulating Calcium Ion Metabolism and Parathyroid Hormone, Calcitriol, an
• Smartart Video: Calcium Ion Metabolism
• 6.12. Clinical Module: A Fracture is a Crack or a Break in a Bone
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 6: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 7. The Skeleton
• Section 1: Axial Skeleton
• 7.1. The Axial Skeleton Includes Bones of the Head, Vertebral Column, and Trunk
• 7.2. The Skull has Cranial and Facial Components that are Usually Bound Together by Sutures
• 7.3. Facial Bones Dominate the Anterior Aspect of the Skull, and Cranial Bones Dominate the Posterio
• 7.4. The Lateral and Medial Aspects of the Skull Share Many Bone Markings
• 7.5. The Foramina on the Inferior Surface of the Skull Mark the Passageways for Nerves and Blood Ves
• 7.6. The Shapes and Markings of the Sphenoid, Ethmoid, and Palatine Bones are the Best Seen in the I
• 7.7. Each Orbital Complex Contains One Eye, and the Nasal Complex Encloses the Nasal Cavities
• 7.8. The Mandible Forms the Lower Jaw and the Associated Bones of the Skull Perform Specialized Func
• 7.9. Fontanelles Permit Cranial Growth in Infants and Small Children
• 7.10. The Vertebral Column has Four Spinal Curves, and Vertebrae Share a Basic Structure that Differ
• 7.11. There are Seven Cervical Vertebrae and Twelve Thoracic Vertebrae
• 7.12. There are Five Lumbar Vertebrae
• 7.13. The Sacrum and Coccyx Consist of Fused Vertebrae
• 7.14. The Thoracic Cage Protects Organs in the Chest and Provides Sites for Muscle Attachment
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Appendicular Skeleton
• 7.15. The Appendicular Skeleton Includes the Limb Bones and the Pectoral and Pelvic Girdles
• 7.16. The Pectoral Girdles—the Clavicles and Scapulae—Connect the Upper Limbs to the Axial Skele
• 7.17. The Humerus of the Arm Articulates with the Radius and Ulna of the Forearm
• 7.18. The Wrist Consists of Carpal Bones and the Hand Consists of Metacarpal Bones and Phalanges
• 7.19. The Hip Bone Forms by the Fusion of the Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis
• 7.20. The Pelvis Consists of the Two Hip Bones, the Sacrum, and the Coccyx
• 7.21. The Adult Male and Female Skeletons have Significant Differences
• 7.22. The Femur, Tibia, and Patella Meet at the Knee
• 7.23. The Ankle and Foot Consist of Tarsal Bones, Metatarsal Bones, and Phalanges
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 7: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 8. Joints
• Section 1: Joint Structure and Movement
• 8.1. Joints are Classified According to Structure and Movement
• 8.2. Synovial Joints are Freely Movable and Lines with a Synovial Membrane
• 8.3. Anatomical Organization Determines the Motion at Synovial Joints
• 8.4. Specific Terms are Used to Describe Movements with Reference to the Anatomical Position
• 8.5. Specific Terms Describe Rotation and Special Movements
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Axial and Appendicular Joints
• 8.6. Axial Joints have Less Range of Motion than Appendicular Joints
• 8.7. The Vertebral Column Includes Three Types of Joints
• 8.8. Clinical Module: Intervertebral Disc Disease and Osteoporosis are Common Age-Related Health Pro
• 8.9. The Shoulder and Hip are Ball-and-Socket Joints
• 8.10. The Elbow and Knee are Hinge Joints
• 8.11. Clinical Module: Arthritis can Disrupt Normal Joint Structure and Function
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 8: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 9. Skeletal Muscle Tissue
• Section 1: Functional Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle Tissue
• 9.1. Skeletal Muscle Tissue Enables Body Movement and Other Vital Functions
• 9.2. Skeletal Muscle Contains Muscle Tissue, Connective Tissues, Blood Vessels, and Nerves
• 9.3. Skeletal Muscle Fibers Contain T Tubules and Sarcoplasmic Reticula that Surround Contractile My
• 9.4. The Sliding of Thin Filaments Past Thick Filaments Produces Muscle Contraction
• 9.5. Skeletal Muscle Fibers and Neurons have Excitable Plasma Membranes that Produce and Carry Elect
• 9.6. A Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contracts when Stimulated by a Motor Neuron
• 9.7. A Muscle Fiber Contraction Uses ATP in a Cycle that Repeats During the Contraction
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Functional Properties of Skeletal Muscle
• 9.8. Muscle Tension Develops from the Events that Occur During Excitation-Contraction Coupling
• 9.9. Tension is Greatest when Muscle Fibers are Stimulated at Optimal Length
• 9.10. The Peak Tension Developed by a Skeletal Muscle Depends on the Frequency of Stimulation and th
• Smartart Video: Motor Units and Recruitment
• 9.11. Muscle Contractions May be Isotonic or Isometric; Isotonic Contractions May be Concentric or E
• 9.12. Muscle Contraction Requires Large Amounts of ATP that May be Produced Anaerobically or Aerobic
• Smartart Video: Anaerobic Vs. Aerobic Production of ATP
• 9.13. Muscles Fatigue and May Need an Extended Recovery Period
• 9.14. Fast, Slow, and Intermediate Skeletal Muscle Fibers Differ in Size, Internal Structure, Metabo
• 9.15. Clinical Module: Many Factors can Result in Muscle Hypertrophy, Atrophy, or Paralysis
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 9: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 10. The Muscular System
• Section 1: Functional Organization of the Muscular System
• 10.1. The Axial and Appendicular Muscles have Different Functions
• 10.2. Muscular Power and Range of Motion are Influenced by Fascicle Organization and Leverage
• 10.3. The Origins and Insertions of Muscles Determine their Actions, While their Names can Provide C
• 10.4. The Skeletal Muscles can be Assigned to the Axial Division or the Appendicular Division Based
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Axial Muscles
• 10.5. There are Four Groups of Axial Muscles
• 10.6. The Muscles of Facial Expression are Important in Eating and Useful for Communication
• 10.7. The Extrinsic Eye Muscles Position the Eye and the Muscles of Mastication Move the Lower Jaw
• 10.8. The Muscles of the Tongue are Closely Associated with the Muscles of the Pharynx and Neck
• 10.9. The Muscles of the Vertebral Column Support and Align the Axial Skeleton
• 10.10. The Oblique and Rectus Muscles Form the Muscular Walls of the Trunk
• 10.11. The Muscles of the Pelvic Floor Support the Organs of the Abdominopelvic Cavity
• Section 2: Review
• Section 3: Appendicular Muscles
• 10.12. The Appendicular Muscles Stabilize, Position, and Support the Limbs
• 10.13. The Largest Appendicular Muscles Originate on the Trunk
• 10.14. Muscles that Position Each Pectoral Girdle Originate on the Occipital Bone, Superior Vertebra
• 10.15. Muscles that Move the Arm Originate on the Clavicle, Scapula, Thoracic Cage, and Vertebral Co
• 10.16. Muscles that Move the Forearm and Hand Originate on the Scapula, Humerus, Radius, or Ulna
• 10.17. Muscles that Move the Hand and Fingers Originate on the Humerus, Radius, Ulna, and Interosseo
• 10.18. The Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand Originate on the Carpal and Metacarpal Bones and Associated
• 10.19. The Muscles that Move the Thigh Originate on the Pelvis and Associated Ligaments and Fasciae
• 10.20. The Muscles that Move the Leg Originate on the Pelvis and Femur
• 10.21. The Extrinsic Muscles that Move the Foot and Toes Originate on the Tibia and Fibula
• 10.22. The Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot Originate on the Tarsal and Metatarsal Bones and Associated
• 10.23. The Deep Fascia Divides the Limb Muscles into Separate Compartments
• Section 3: Review
• Chapter 10: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 11. Nervous Tissue
• Section 1: Cellular Organization of the Nervous System
• 11.1. The Nervous System has Three Divisions: The CNS, Pns, and Ens
• 11.2. Neurons are Nerve Cells Specialized for Intercellular Communication
• 11.3. Neurons are Classified on the Basis of Structure and Function
• 11.4. Oligodendrocytes, Astrocytes, Ependymal Cells, and Microglia are Neuroglia of the CNS
• 11.5. Schwann Cells and Satellite Cells are the Neuroglia of the Pns
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Neurophysiology
• 11.6. Neuronal Activity Depends on Changes in Membrane Potential
• 11.7. Differences in Electrochemical Gradients Determine the Resting Membrane Potential
• 11.8. Three Types of Gated Ion Channels Change the Permeability of the Plasma Membrane
• 11.9. Graded Potentials are Localized Changes in the Membrane Potential
• 11.10. Action Potentials are All-Or-None Events for Communication that Begin with Membrane Potential
• 11.11. Action Potentials May Affect Adjacent Portions of the Plasma Membrane Through Continuous Prop
• 11.12. At a Synapse, Information Travels from the Presynaptic Cell to the Postsynaptic Cell
• 11.13. Postsynaptic Potentials are Responsible for Information Processing in a Neuron
• 11.14. Information Processing Involves Interacting Groups of Neurons and Various Neurotransmitters t
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 11: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 12. The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Spinal Reflexes
• Section 1: Functional Organization of the Spinal Cord
• 12.1. The Spinal Cord can Function Independently from the Brain
• 12.2. The Spinal Cord has 31 Segments with 31 Pairs of Nerves
• 12.3. The Spinal Meninges, Consisting of the Dura Mater, Arachnoid Mater, and Pia Mater, Surround th
• 12.4. Gray Matter Integrates Sensory and Motor Functions, and White Matter Carries Information
• 12.5. Spinal Nerves have a Similar Anatomical Structure and Distribution Pattern
• 12.6. Each Ramus of a Spinal Nerve Provides Sensory and Motor Innervation to a Specific Region
• 12.7. Spinal Nerves Form Nerve Plexuses that Innervate the Skin and Skeletal Muscles
• 12.8. The Cervical Plexus Innervates the Muscles of the Neck and Diaphragm
• 12.9. The Brachial Plexus Innervates the Pectoral Girdles and Upper Limbs
• 12.10. The Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses Innervate the Skin and Skeletal Muscles of the Trunk and Lower
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Introduction to Reflexes
• 12.11. CNS Neurons are Grouped into Neuronal Pools, Which Form Neural Circuits
• 12.12. Reflexes are Vital to Homeostasis
• Smartart Video: The Reflex Arc
• 12.13. The Stretch Reflex is a Monosynaptic Reflex Involving Muscle Spindles
• 12.14. Withdrawal Reflexes and Crossed Extensor Reflexes are Polysynaptic Reflexes
• 12.15. Clinical Module: The Brain can Inhibit or Facilitate Spinal Reflexes, and Reflexes can be Use
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 12: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 13. The Brain, Cranial Nerves, and Sensory and Motor Pathways
• Section 1: Functional Anatomy of the Brain and Cranial Nerves
• 13.1. The Brain Develops from a Hollow Neural Tube
• 13.2. Each Region of the Brain has Distinct Structural and Functional Characteristics
• 13.3. The Cranial Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Protect and Support the Brain
• 13.4. The Medulla Oblongata Contains Autonomic Reflex Centers, Relay Stations, and Ascending and Des
• 13.5. The Pons Links the Cerebellum to the Brain and Spinal Cord and has Vital Autonomic Reflex Cent
• 13.6. The Cerebellum Coordinates Learned and Reflexive Patterns of Muscular Activity at the Subconsc
• 13.7. The Midbrain Regulates Auditory and Visual Reflexes and Controls Alertness
• 13.8. The Diencephalon Consists of the Epithalamus, Thalamus, and Hypothalamus
• 13.9. The Limbic System is a Functional Group of Tracts and Nuclei Located in the Cerebrum and Dienc
• 13.10. The Basal Nuclei of the Cerebrum Adjust and Refine Ongoing Voluntary Movements
• 13.11. Superficial Landmarks Divide the Cerebral Hemispheres into Lobes
• 13.12. The Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex have Regions with Specific Functions
• 13.13. White Matter Connects the Cerebral Hemispheres and the Lobes of Each Hemisphere and Links the
• 13.14. Clinical Module: Brain Activity can be Monitored Using External Electrodes; the Record is Cal
• 13.15. The Twelve Pairs of Cranial Nerves are Classified as Sensory, Special Sensory, Motor, or Mixe
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Sensory and Motor Pathways
• 13.16. Sensations Carried by Sensory Pathways to the CNS Begin with Transduction at a Sensory Recept
• 13.17. Receptors are Classified by Function or Response to the Stimulus
• 13.18. Tactile Receptors have a Simple Structure and are Abundant in the Skin
• 13.19. Three Major Somatic Sensory Pathways Carry Information from the Skin and Muscles to the CNS
• 13.20. The Somatic Nervous System Controls Skeletal Muscles Through Upper and Lower Motor Neurons
• 13.21. There are Multiple Levels of Somatic Motor Control
• 13.22. Clinical Module: Nervous System Disorders May Result from Problems with Neurons, Pathways, or
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 13: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 14. The Autonomic Nervous System
• Section 1: Functional Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System
• 14.1. Ganglionic Neurons of the Ans Control Visceral Effectors
• 14.2. The Ans Consists of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
• 14.3. The Sympathetic Division has Chain Ganglia, Collateral Ganglia, and the Adrenal Medullae, Wher
• 14.4. The Two Ans Divisions Innervate Many of the Same Structures, But the Innervation Patterns are
• 14.5. The Functional Differences Between the Two Ans Divisions Reflect their Divergent Anatomical an
• 14.6. Membrane Receptors at Target Organs Mediate the Effects of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Sti
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Autonomic Regulation and Control Mechanisms
• 14.7. The Ans Adjusts Visceral Motor Responses to Maintain Homeostasis
• 14.8. The Ans Provides Precise Control Over Visceral Functions
• 14.9. Most Visceral Functions are Controlled by Visceral Reflexes
• 14.10. Baroreceptors and Chemoreceptors Initiate Important Autonomic Reflexes Involving Visceral Sen
• 14.11. The Autonomic Nervous System has Multiple Levels of Motor Control
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 14: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 15. The Special Senses
• Section 1: Olfaction and Gustation
• 15.1. A Generator Potential is a Depolarization of the Membrane
• 15.2. Olfaction Involves Specialized Chemoreceptive Neurons and Delivers Sensations Directly to the
• 15.3. Gustation Involves Epithelial Chemoreceptor Cells Located in Taste Buds
• 15.4. Gustatory Reception Relies on Membrane Receptors and Ion Channels, and Sensations are Carried
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Vision
• 15.5. The Eyes Form Early in Embryonic Development
• 15.6. Accessory Structures of the Eye Provide Protection While Allowing Light to Reach the Interior
• 15.7. The Hollow Eyeball has a Layered Wall and Fluid-Filled Anterior and Posterior Cavities
• 15.8. The Structures of the Eye Direct Light Along a Visual Axis to the Fovea Centralis of the Retin
• 15.9. Focusing of Light Produces a Sharp Image on the Retina
• 15.10. The Neural Layer of the Retina Contains Multiple Layers of Specialized Photoreceptors, Neuron
• 15.11. Photoreception Occurs in the Outer Segment of Rod and Cone Cells
• 15.12. Photoreception Involves Activation, Bleaching, and Reassembly of Visual Pigments
• 15.13. The Visual Pathways Distribute Visual Information from Each Eye to Both Cerebral Hemispheres
• 15.14. Clinical Module: Refractive Problems Result from Abnormalities in the Cornea or Lens or in th
• Section 2: Review
• Section 3: Equilibrium and Hearing
• 15.15. Equilibrium and Hearing Involve the Internal Ear
• 15.16. The Ear is Divided into the External Ear, the Middle Ear, and the Internal Ear
• 15.17. in the Internal Ear, the Bony Labyrinth Protects the Membranous Labyrinth and Its Receptors
• 15.18. Hair Cells in the Semicircular Ducts Respond to Rotation; Hair Cells in the Utricle and Saccu
• 15.19. The Cochlear Duct Contains the Hair Cells of the Spiral Organ that Function in Hearing
• 15.20. Sound Waves Lead to Movement of the Basilar Membrane in the Process of Hearing
• 15.21. The Vestibulocochlear Nerve Carries Equilibrium and Hearing Sensations to the Brainstem
• 15.22. Clinical Module: Aging is Associated with Many Disorders of the Special Senses; Trauma, Infec
• Section 3: Review
• Chapter 15: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 16. The Endocrine System
• Section 1: Hormones and Intercellular Communication
• 16.1. The Nervous and Endocrine Systems Release Chemical Messengers that Bind to Target Cells
• 16.2. Hormones May be Amino Acid Derivatives, Peptides, or Lipid Derivatives
• 16.3. The Endocrine System Includes Organs and Tissues with Primary and Secondary Hormone-Secreting
• 16.4. Hormones Affect Target Cells After Binding to Receptors in the Plasma Membrane, Cytoplasm, or
• 16.5. The Hypothalamus Exerts Direct or Indirect Control Over the Activities of Many Endocrine Organ
• 16.6. The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland Produces and Releases 7 Tropic Hormones, While the Po
• 16.7. Negative Feedback Mechanisms Control the Secretion Rates of the Hypothalamus and the Pituitary
• 16.8. The Thyroid Gland Contains Follicles and Requires Iodine to Produce Hormones that Stimulate Ti
• 16.9. Parathyroid Hormone, Produced by the Parathyroid Glands, is the Primary Regulator of Blood Cal
• 16.10. The Adrenal Hormones are Involved in Metabolic Regulation, Electrolyte Balance, and Stress Re
• 16.11. The Pancreatic Islets Secrete Insulin and Glucagon, Which Regulate Glucose Use by Most Cells
• Smartart Video: The Pancreas and Regulation of Blood Glucose
• 16.12. The Pineal Gland of the Epithalamus Secretes Melatonin, Which Affects the Circadian Rhythm
• 16.13. Clinical Module: Diabetes Mellitus is an Endocrine Disorder Characterized by an Excessively H
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Hormones and System Integration
• 16.14. Hormones Interact to Produce Coordinated Physiological Responses
• 16.15. Regulation of Blood Pressure and Blood Volume Involves Hormones from Primary Endocrine Organs
• 16.16. Normal Growth Requires the Cooperation of Many Endocrine Organs
• 16.17. The Stress Response is a Predictable Response to Any Significant Threat to Homeostasis
• 16.18. Clinical Module: Overproduction or Underproduction of Hormones can Cause Endocrine Disorders
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 16: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 17. Blood
• Section 1: Plasma and Formed Elements
• 17.1. Blood is the Fluid Portion of the Cardiovascular System
• 17.2. Blood is a Fluid Connective Tissue Containing Plasma and Formed Elements
• 17.3. Formed Elements are Produced by Stem Cells in Red Bone Marrow
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Structure and Function of Formed Elements
• 17.4. Hematology is the Study of Blood and Blood-Forming Tissues
• 17.5. Red Blood Cells, the Most Common Formed Elements, Contain Hemoglobin that Transports Respirato
• 17.6. Red Blood Cells are Continually Produced and their Components Recycled or Eliminated
• 17.7. Blood Type is Determined by the Presence or Absence of Specific Surface Antigens on RBCs
• 17.8. Clinical Module: Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn is an Rbc-Related Disorder Caused by a Cross
• 17.9. The Various Types of White Blood Cells Contribute to the Body’s Defenses
• 17.10. The Clotting Response is a Complex Cascade of Events that Reduces Blood Loss
• 17.11. Clinical Module: Blood Disorders can be Classified by their Origins and the Changes in Blood
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 17: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 18. The Heart and Cardiovascular Function
• Section 1: Structure of the Heart
• 18.1. The Heart has Four Chambers that Pump and Circulate Blood Through the Pulmonary and Systemic C
• 18.2. The Heart is Located in the Mediastinum and is Enclosed by the Pericardial Cavity
• 18.3. The Heart Wall Contains Concentric Layers of Cardiac Muscle Tissue
• 18.4. The Boundaries Between the Four Chambers of the Heart can be Identified on Its External Surfac
• 18.5. The Heart has an Extensive Blood Supply
• 18.6. Internal Valves Control the Direction of Blood Flow Between the Heart Chambers and Great Vesse
• 18.7. when the Heart Beats, the AV Valves Close Before the Semilunar Valves Open, and the Semilunar
• 18.8. Clinical Module: Arteriosclerosis can Lead to Coronary Artery Disease
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Cardiac Cycle
• 18.9. The Cardiac Cycle is a Complete Round of Systole and Diastole
• 18.10. The Cardiac Cycle Creates Pressure Gradients that Maintain Blood Flow
• Smartart Video: The Cardiac Cycle
• 18.11. Cardiac Muscle Cell Contractions Last Longer than Skeletal Muscle Fiber Contractions Primaril
• Smartart Video: The Conducting System of the Heart
• 18.12. Electrical Events of Pacemaker Cells and Conducting Cells Establish the Heart Rate
• 18.13. Clinical Module: Normal and Abnormal Cardiac Activity can be Detected in an Electrocardiogram
• 18.14. The Intrinsic Heart Rate can be Altered by Autonomic Activity
• 18.15. Stroke Volume Depends on the Relationship Between End-Diastolic Volume and End-Systolic Volum
• 18.16. Cardiac Output is Regulated by Adjustments in Heart Rate and Stroke Volume
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 18: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 19. Blood Vessels and Circulation
• Section 1: Functional Anatomy of Blood Vessels
• 19.1. The Heart Pumps Blood, in Sequence, Through the Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins of the Pulmon
• 19.2. Arteries and Veins Differ in the Structure and Thickness of their Walls
• 19.3. Capillary Structure and Capillary Blood Flow Affect the Rates of Exchange Between the Blood an
• 19.4. The Venous System has Low Pressures and Contains Almost Two-Thirds of the Body’s Blood Volum
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Coordination of Cardiac Output and Blood Flow
• 19.5. Pressure, Resistance, and Venous Return Affect Cardiac Output
• 19.6. Vessel Luminal Diameter is the Main Source of Resistance Within the Cardiovascular System
• 19.7. Blood Flow is Determined by the Interplay Between Arterial Pressure and Peripheral Resistance
• 19.8. Capillary Exchange is a Dynamic Process that Includes Diffusion, Filtration, and Reabsorption
• 19.9. Cardiovascular Regulatory Mechanisms Respond to Changes in Blood Pressure or Blood Chemistry
• 19.10. Endocrine Responses to Low Blood Pressure and Low Blood Volume are Very Different from Those
• 19.11. Chemoreceptors Monitor the Chemical Composition of the Blood and Cerebrospinal Fluid
• 19.12. The Cardiovascular Center Makes Extensive Adjustments to Cardiac Output and Blood Distributio
• 19.13. Clinical Module: Short-Term and Long-Term Mechanisms Compensate for a Reduction in Blood Volu
• Section 2: Review
• Section 3: Patterns of Blood Flow
• 19.14. New Blood Vessels Form Through Vasculogenesis and Angiogenesis
• 19.15. The Pulmonary Circuit Carries Deoxygenated Blood from the Right Ventricle to the Lungs and Re
• 19.16. The Arteries and Veins of the Systemic Circuit Operate in Parallel, and the Major Vessels Oft
• 19.17. The Branches of the Aortic Arch Supply Structures that are Drained by the Superior Vena Cava
• 19.18. The External Carotid Arteries Supply the Neck, Lower Jaw, and Face, and the Internal Carotid
• 19.19. The Internal Carotid Arteries and the Vertebral Arteries Supply the Brain Which is Drained by
• 19.20. The Regions Supplied by the Descending Aorta are Drained by the Superior and Inferior Venae C
• 19.21. The Viscera Supplied by the Celiac Trunk and Mesenteric Arteries are Drained by the Branches
• 19.22. The Pelvis and Lower Limbs are Supplied by Branches of the Common Iliac Arteries and Drained
• 19.23. The Arteries of the Systemic Circuit Deliver Oxygenated Blood Throughout the Body and the Vei
• 19.24. Clinical Module: The Pattern of Blood Flow Through the Fetal Heart and the Systemic Circuit M
• Section 3: Review
• Chapter 19: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 20. The Lymphatic System and Immunity
• Section 1: Anatomy of the Lymphatic System
• 20.1. The Lymphatic System Consists of Lymphatic Vessels, Nodes, and Lymphoid Tissue
• 20.2. Interstitial Fluid Flows Continuously into Lymphatic Capillaries and Exits Tissues as Lymph in
• 20.3. Small Lymphatic Vessels Converge to Form Lymphatic Ducts that Empty into the Subclavian Veins
• 20.4. Lymphocytes are Responsible for the Immune Functions of the Lymphatic System
• 20.5. Lymphocytes Aggregate Within Lymphoid Tissues and Lymphoid Organs
• 20.6. The Thymus is a Lymphoid Organ that Produces Functional T Cells
• 20.7. The Spleen, the Largest Lymphoid Organ, Responds to Antigens in the Bloodstream
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Innate Immunity
• 20.8. Innate Immunity is Nonspecific and is not Stimulated by Specific Antigens
• 20.9. Physical Barriers Prevent Pathogens and Toxins from Entering Body Tissues
• 20.10. Phagocytes Respond to Pathogen Invasion
• 20.11. NK Cells Perform Immune Surveillance, Detecting and Destroying Abnormal Cells
• 20.12. Interferons and the Complement System are Distributed Widely in Body Fluids
• 20.13. Inflammation is a Localized Tissue Response to Injury; Fever is a Generalized Response to Tis
• Section 2: Review
• Section 3: Adaptive Immunity
• 20.14. Adaptive Immunity Provides the Body’s Specific Defenses
• 20.15. Adaptive Immunity is Triggered by Exposure of T Cells and B Cells to Specific Antigens
• Smartart Video: The Immune Response
• 20.16. Infected Cells Stimulate the Formation and Division of Cytotoxic T Cells, Memory Tc Cells, an
• 20.17. Antigen-Presenting Cells can Stimulate Activation of Cd4 T Cells, Producing Helper T Cells th
• 20.18. Antibodies are Small Soluble Proteins that Bind to Specific Antigens and Whose Abundance Incr
• 20.19. Antibodies Use Many Different Mechanisms to Destroy Target Antigens
• 20.20. Clinical Module: Hypersensitivities are Abnormal Reactions to Antigens
• 20.21. Innate Immunity and Adaptive Immunity Work Together to Defeat Pathogens
• 20.22. Clinical Module: Immune Disorders Involving Either Overactivity or Underactivity can be Harmf
• Section 3: Review
• Chapter 20: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 21. The Respiratory System
• Section 1: Anatomy of the Respiratory System
• 21.1. The Respiratory System has an Upper and Lower Respiratory Tract with Different Functions
• 21.2. The Respiratory Defense System Protects the Respiratory Mucosa
• 21.3. The Upper Respiratory System Includes the Nose, Nasal Cavity, Paranasal Sinuses, and Pharynx
• 21.4. The Larynx Protects the Glottis that Produces Sounds
• 21.5. The Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchial Branches Convey Air to and from Lung Gas Exchange Surfaces
• 21.6. The Lungs have Lobes that are Subdivided into Bronchopulmonary Segments
• 21.7. Pulmonary Lobules Contain Alveoli, Where Gas Exchange Occurs
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Respiratory Physiology
• 21.8. Respiratory Physiology Involves External and Internal Respiration
• 21.9. Pulmonary Ventilation is Driven by Pressure Changes Within the Pleural Cavities
• 21.10. Respiratory Muscles are Involved with Breathing, and Pulmonary Function Tests Determine Lung
• 21.11. Pulmonary Ventilation Must be Closely Regulated to Meet Tissue Oxygen Demands
• 21.12. Gas Diffusion Depends on the Partial Pressures and Solubilities of Gases
• Smartart Video: Partial Pressures and Gas Diffusion
• 21.13. Almost All the Oxygen in Blood is Transported Bound to Hemoglobin Within Red Blood Cells
• 21.14. Carbon Dioxide is Transported Three Ways in the Bloodstream
• 21.15. Clinical Module: Pulmonary Disease can Affect Both Lung Elasticity and Airflow
• 21.16. Respiratory Control Mechanisms Involve Interacting Centers in the Brainstem
• 21.17. Respiratory Reflexes Provide Rapid Automatic Adustments in Pulmonary Ventilation
• 21.18. Clinical Module: Respiratory Function Decreases with Age; Smoking Makes Matters Worse
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 21: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 22. The Digestive System
• Section 1: Organization of the Digestive System
• 22.1. The Digestive System Consists of the Digestive Tract and Accessory Organs
• 22.2. The Digestive Tract is a Muscular Tube Lined by a Mucous Epithelium
• 22.3. Smooth Muscle Tissue is Found Throughout the Body, But It Plays a Particularly Prominent Role
• 22.4. Smooth Muscle Contractions Produce Motility of the Digestive Tract and Local Factors Interact
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Digestive Tract
• 22.5. The Digestive Tract Begins with the Mouth and Ends with the Anus
• 22.6. The Oral Cavity is a Space that Contains the Tongue, Teeth, and Gums
• 22.7. Teeth in Different Regions of the Jaws Vary in Size, Shape, and Function
• 22.8. The Muscular Walls of the Pharynx and Esophagus Play a Key Role in Swallowing
• 22.9. The Stomach and Most of the Intestinal Tract are Suspended by Mesenteries and Covered by the P
• 22.10. The Stomach is a Muscular, Expandable, J-Shaped Organ with Three Layers in the Muscular Layer
• 22.11. The Stomach Receives Food and Liquids from the Esophagus and Aids in Mechanical and Chemical
• 22.12. The Intestinal Tract is Specialized to Absorb Nutrients
• 22.13. The Small Intestine is Divided into the Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum
• 22.14. Several Hormones Regulate Digestion
• 22.15. Central and Local Mechanisms Coordinate Gastric and Intestinal Activities
• 22.16. The Large Intestine Stores and Concentrates Fecal Material
• 22.17. The Large Intestine Compacts Fecal Material; the Defecation Reflex Coordinates the Eliminatio
• Section 2: Review
• Section 3: Accessory Digestive Organs
• 22.18. Some Accessory Digestive Organs have Secretory Functions
• 22.19. Saliva Lubricates, Moistens, and Protects the Mouth and Begins Carbohydrate Digestion
• 22.20. The Liver, the Largest Visceral Organ, is Divided into Left, Right, Caudate, and Quadrate Lob
• 22.21. The Liver Tissues have an Extensive and Complex Blood Supply
• Smartart Video: Structure and Function of the Liver Lobule
• 22.22. The Gallbladder Stores and Concentrates Bile
• 22.23. The Pancreas has Vital Endocrine and Exocrine Functions
• 22.24. Clinical Module: Disorders of the Digestive System are Diverse and Relatively Common
• Section 3: Review
• Chapter 22: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 23. Metabolism, Nutrition, and Energetics
• Section 1: Introduction to Cellular Metabolism
• 23.1. Metabolism is the Sum of Catabolic and Anabolic Reactions
• 23.2. Cells Use Nutrients from the Nutrient Pool for Metabolism
• 23.3. Glycolysis is the First Step in Glucose Catabolism
• 23.4. The Citric Acid Cycle Transfers Hydrogen Atoms to Coenzymes
• 23.5. The Electron Transport Chain Establishes a Proton Gradient Used to Make ATP
• 23.6. Glucose Catabolism Yields 30–32 ATP
• 23.7. Nutrient Metabolism Follows Several Pathways
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Digestion and Metabolism of Organic Nutrients
• 23.8. Digestion Involves a Series of Steps to Make Nutrients Available to the Body
• 23.9. Carbohydrates are Usually the Preferred Substrates for Catabolism and ATP Production Under Res
• 23.10. Lipids Reach the Bloodstream in Chylomicrons; the Cholesterol is then Extracted and Released
• 23.11. Fatty Acids can be Broken Down to Provide Energy or Converted to Other Lipids
• 23.12. An Amino Acid not Needed for Protein Synthesis May be Broken Down or Converted to a Different
• 23.13. There are Two General Patterns of Metabolic Activity: The Absorptive and Postabsorptive State
• 23.14. Vitamins are Essential to the Function of Many Metabolic Pathways
• 23.15. Proper Nutrition Depends on Eating a Balanced Diet
• 23.16. Clinical Module: Metabolic Disorders May Result from Nutritional or Biochemical Problems
• Section 2: Review
• Section 3: Energetics and Thermoregulation
• 23.17. Energetics is the Study of Energy Changes, and Thermoregulation Involves Heat Balance
• 23.18. The Control of Appetite is Complex and Involves Both Short-Term and Long-Term Mechanisms
• 23.19. to Maintain a Constant Body Temperature, Heat Gain and Heat Loss Must be in Balance
• 23.20. Thermoregulatory Centers in the Hypothalamus Adjust Heat Loss and Heat Gain
• Section 3: Review
• Chapter 23: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 24. The Urinary System
• Section 1: Anatomy of the Urinary System
• 24.1. The Urinary System Organs are the Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra
• 24.2. The Kidneys are Paired Retroperitoneal Organs
• 24.3. The Kidneys are Complex at the Gross and Microscopic Levels
• 24.4. A Nephron is Divided into Segments; Each Segment has Specific Functions
• Smartart Video: Structure of the Nephron
• 24.5. The Kidneys are Highly Vascular, and the Circulation Patterns are Complex
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Overview of Renal Physiology
• 24.6. The Kidneys Maintain Homeostasis by Removing Wastes and Producing Urine
• 24.7. Filtration, Reabsorption, and Secretion Occur in Specific Segments of the Nephron and Collecti
• 24.8. Filtration Occurs at the Renal Corpuscle
• 24.9. The Glomerular Filtration Rate is the Amount of Filtrate Produced Each Minute
• 24.10. Reabsorption Predominates Along the Proximal Convoluted Tubule, Whereas Reabsorption and Secr
• 24.11. Exchange Between the Limbs of the Nephron Loop Creates an Osmotic Concentration Gradient in t
• 24.12. Urine Volume and Concentration are Hormonally Regulated
• 24.13. Renal Function is an Integrative Process Involving Filtration, Reabsorption, and Secretion
• 24.14. Clinical Module: Renal Failure is a Life-Threatening Condition
• Section 2: Review
• Section 3: Urine Storage and Elimination
• 24.15. The Urinary Tract Transports, Stores, and Eliminates Urine
• 24.16. The Ureters, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra are Specialized to Conduct Urine
• 24.17. Urinary Reflexes Coordinate Urine Storage and Voiding
• 24.18. Clinical Module: Urinary Disorders can Often be Detected by Physical Examinations and Laborat
• Section 3: Review
• Chapter 24: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 25. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
• Section 1: Fluid and Electrolyte Balance
• 25.1. Body Composition May be Viewed in Terms of Solids and Two Fluid Compartments
• 25.2. Fluid Balance Exists when Water Gain Equals Water Loss
• 24.3. Mineral Balance Involves Balancing Electrolyte Gain and Loss
• 25.4. Water Balance Depends on Sodium Balance, and the Two are Regulated Simultaneously
• 25.5. Clinical Module: Disturbances of Potassium Balance are Uncommon But Extremely Dangerous
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Acid-Base Balance
• 25.6. There are Three Categories of Acids in the Body
• 25.7. Potentially Dangerous Disturbances in Acid-Base Balance are Opposed by Buffer Systems
• 25.8. Buffer Systems can Delay, But not Prevent, pH Shifts in the ICF and ECF
• 25.9. The Homeostatic Responses to Metabolic Acidosis and Alkalosis Involve Respiratory and Renal Me
• 25.10. Clinical Module: Respiratory Acid-Base Disorders are the Most Common Challenges to Acid-Base
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 25: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 26. The Reproductive System
• Section 1: Male Reproductive System
• 26.1. Male Reproductive Structures Include the External Genitalia and Internal Genitalia
• 26.2. Sperm Transport Relies on Ducts, Glands, and Related Structures of the Scrotum and Testes
• 26.3. Spermatogenesis Occurs in the Testes and Produces Mature Sperm
• 26.4. Meiosis and Early Spermiogenesis Occur Within the Seminiferous Tubules
• 26.5. The Male Reproductive Tract Receives Secretions from the Seminal, Prostate, and Bulbo-Urethral
• 26.6. The Penis Conducts Urine and Semen to the Exterior
• 26.7. Testosterone Plays a Key Role in Establishing and Maintaining Male Sexual Function
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Female Reproductive System
• 26.8. Female Reproductive Structures Include the External Genitalia and Internal Genitalia
• 26.9. Major Female Reproductive Organs are the Ovaries, Uterus, and their Associated Structures
• 26.10. Oogenesis Occurs in the Ovaries, and Ovulation Occurs During the 28-Day Ovarian Cycle
• 26.11. The Uterine Tubes are Connected to the Uterus, a Hollow Organ with Thick Muscular Walls
• 26.12. The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle Involves Changes in the Functional Layer of the Endometrium
• 26.13. The Vagina Opens into the Vestibule
• 26.14. Each Breast Contains a Mammary Gland that Secretes Milk
• 26.15. The Ovarian and Uterine Cycles are Regulated by Hormones of the Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland
• 26.16. Clinical Module: Birth Control Strategies Vary in Effectiveness and Associated Risks
• 26.17. Clinical Module: Reproductive System Disorders are Relatively Common and Often Deadly
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 26: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• 27. Development and Inheritance
• Section 1: Overview of Development
• 27.1. Gestation and Development are Marked by Various Stages
• 27.2. At Fertilization, an Ovum and a Sperm Form a Zygote that Prepares for Cell Division
• 27.3. Cleavage Continues Until the Blastocyst Implants in the Uterine Wall
• 27.4. Gastrulation Produces Three Germ Layers: Ectoderm, Endoderm, and Mesoderm
• 27.5. The Extra-Embryonic Membranes Form the Placenta that Supports Fetal Growth and Development
• 27.6. The Formation of Extra-Embryonic Membranes is Associated with Major Changes in the Shape and C
• 27.7. The Placenta Performs Many Vital Functions During Prenatal Development
• 27.8. Organ Systems Form in the First Trimester and Become Functional in the Second and Third Trimes
• 27.9. Pregnancy Places Anatomical and Physiological Stresses on Maternal Systems
• 27.10. Multiple Factors Initiate and Accelerate Labor and Delivery
• 27.11. After Delivery, Development Initially Requires Nourishment by Maternal Systems
• 27.12. Postnatal Development Includes Five Life Stages
• 27.13. At Puberty, Male and Female Sex Hormones have Differing Effects on Most Body Systems
• Section 1: Review
• Section 2: Genetics and Inheritance
• 27.14. A Person May be Described in Terms of Genotype and Phenotype
• 27.15. Genes and Chromosomes Determine Patterns of Inheritance
• 27.16. There are Several Different Patterns of Inheritance
• 27.17. Clinical Module: Many Clinical Disorders are Linked to Individual Chromosomes or their Genes
• Section 2: Review
• Chapter 27: Review
• Study Outline
• Chapter Review Questions
• Chapter Integration
• Appendix
• Answers
• Glossary
• Credits
• Index
• Back Cover