Efnisyfirlit

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Contents
• Preface: Turning a Magician into an Expert
• Acknowledgements
• Chapter 1: Introducing Geophysics and This Book
• 1.1 What is geophysics?
• 1.2 The Earth through geophysical spectacles: The relation of geophysics to geology
• 1.3 What this book covers and how it is structured
• Summary
• Further reading
• Part I: Geophysical Methods
• Subpart I.1: Data Acquisition and Processing
• Chapter 2: Data Acquisition and Reduction: Carrying out a Geophysical Survey
• 2.1 Data acquisition: Taking measurements
• 2.2 Data reduction
• 2.3 Signal and noise
• 2.4 Modelling
• 2.5 Geological interpretation
• 2.6 Displaying the results
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Chapter 3: Data Processing: Getting More Information from the Data
• 3.1 Fourier analysis
• 3.1.1 Wavelength
• 3.1.2 Harmonic analysis
• 3.1.3 Fourier analysis of a profile
• 3.1.4 Fourier analysis in 2D: Gridded data
• 3.1.5 Why a harmonic series?
• 3.2 Digital filtering
• 3.2.1 Simple filters
• 3.2.2 Aliasing
• 3.2.3 Designing a simple filter
• 3.2.4 Filtering in 2D: Gridded data
• 3.2.5 Using filters to enhance various types of features
• 3.3 Summing up: Fourier analysis and filtering
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Subpart I.2: Seismology
• Chapter 4: Global Seismology and Seismic Waves
• 4.1 Waves, pulses, and rays
• 4.2 Detecting seismic waves: Seismometers and geophones
• 4.3 The Earth is concentrically layered
• 4.3.1 Spherical symmetry of the Earth’s interior
• 4.3.2 Concentric layering
• 4.4 Finding the path of a ray through the Earth
• 4.4.1 Refraction: Snell’s law
• 4.4.2 Tracing rays through the Earth: The ray parameter, p
• 4.4.3 Ray tracing and the Earth’s velocity–depth structure
• 4.5 Seismic features of the Earth
• 4.5.1 Core and mantle
• 4.5.2 Longitudinal and transverse waves
• 4.5.3 The mantle–core difference
• 4.5.4 Other seismological features of the Earth
• 4.5.5 Attenuation
• 4.5.6 Ray paths in the Earth
• 4.6 Seismic tomography
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Chapter 5: Earthquakes and Seismotectonics
• 5.1 What is an earthquake?
• 5.2 Locating an earthquake
• 5.3 Fault-plane solutions and stresses
• 5.3.1 Fault-plane solutions
• 5.3.2 The earthquake stress field and the double-couple mechanism
• 5.4 Rupture dimensions and displacements
• 5.5 Measures of earthquake size
• 5.5.1 Intensity: Severity of an earthquake at a locality
• 5.5.2 Seismic moment: Size of the earthquake at source
• 5.6 Seismotectonics: Deducing tectonic processes
• 5.6.1 Qualitative seismotectonics
• 5.6.2 Quantitative seismotectonics: Seismic and aseismic faulting
• 5.7 Surface waves
• 5.8 Magnitude: Another measure of earthquake strength
• 5.9 Energies of earthquakes
• 5.10 Earthquake damage and its mitigation
• 5.10.1 Causes of damage
• 5.10.2 Mitigating the damage caused by earthquakes
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Chapter 6: Refraction Seismology
• 6.1 Critical refraction and head waves
• 6.1.1 Huygens’s wavelets
• 6.1.2 Head waves
• 6.2 The time–distance (t–x) diagram
• 6.3 Multiple layers
• 6.4 Dipping interfaces
• 6.5 Seismic velocities in rocks
• 6.6 Hidden layers
• 6.6.1 Hidden layer proper
• 6.6.2 Low-velocity layer
• 6.7 Carrying out a seismic-refraction survey
• 6.8 Undulating interfaces and delay times
• 6.8.1 Delay times
• 6.8.2 The plus–minus method
• 6.9 Ray tracing and synthetic seismograms
• 6.10 Detecting offsets in interfaces
• 6.11 Fan shooting: Simple seismic tomography
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Chapter 7: Reflection Seismology
• 7.1 Seismic-reflection sections and their limitations
• 7.2 Velocity determination using normal moveout, NMO
• 7.3 Stacking
• 7.4 Dipping reflectors and migration
• 7.5 Faulted reflectors: Diffraction
• 7.6 Multiple reflections
• 7.7 Carrying out a reflection survey
• 7.7.1 Data acquisition
• 7.7.2 Common-depth-point (CDP) stacking
• 7.7.3 Data display
• 7.7.4 Vibroseis: A nonimpulsive source
• 7.8 What is a reflector?
• 7.8.1 Strengths of reflected and transmitted pulses
• 7.8.2 Vertical resolution: The least separation at which interfaces can be distinguished
• 7.8.3 Synthetic reflection seismograms
• 7.9 Three-dimensional (3D) surveying
• 7.10 Reflection seismology and the search for hydrocarbons
• 7.10.1 The formation of hydrocarbon traps
• 7.10.2 The recognition of hydrocarbon traps
• 7.11 Sequence stratigraphy
• 7.12 Shallow-reflection seismic surveys
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Subpart I.3: Gravity
• Chapter 8: Gravity on a Small Scale
• 8.1 Newton’s Law of Gravitation
• 8.1.1 The mass of the Earth
• 8.2 Densities of rocks
• 8.3 Gravity units
• 8.4 Gravity anomalies of some bodies
• 8.5 Measuring gravity: Gravimeters
• 8.6 Data reduction
• 8.6.1 Instrumental effects and other corrections
• 8.6.2 Residual and regional anomalies
• 8.7 Planning and carrying out a gravity survey
• 8.8 Modelling and interpretation
• 8.8.1 The inversion problem
• 8.8.2 Depth rules
• 8.8.3 Modelling
• 8.9 Total excess mass
• 8.10 Microgravity surveys
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Chapter 9: Large-Scale Gravity and Isostasy
• 9.1 Isostasy
• 9.1.1 The concept of isostasy: Floating blocks
• 9.1.2 Gravity and isostatic equilibrium
• 9.1.3 Simple isostatic calculations
• 9.1.4 Airy and Pratt models of isostasy
• 9.1.5 Isostasy with regional compensation
• 9.1.6 The isostatic anomaly
• 9.1.7 The evidence for isostasy
• 9.1.8 Isostatic rebound and the viscosity of the asthenosphere
• 9.2 How the mantle is both solid and liquid: Solid-state creep
• 9.3 What is the lithosphere?
• 9.4 Forces on the lithosphere
• 9.5 The shape of the Earth
• 9.5.1 Seeing the ocean floor in the ocean surface
• 9.5.2 The large-scale shape of the Earth
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Subpart I.4: Magnetism
• Chapter 10: Palaeomagnetism and Mineral Magnetism
• 10.1 The Earth’s magnetic field, present and past
• 10.1.1 Magnets and magnetic fields
• 10.1.2 The Earth’s magnetic field at present
• 10.1.3 The Earth’s magnetic field in the past
• 10.2 Palaeomagnetism
• 10.2.1 Measuring a palaeomagnetic direction
• 10.2.2 Palaeopoles, palaeolatitudes, and rotations
• 10.2.3 Apparent polar wander (APW) paths and relative continental movements
• 10.3 The magnetism of rocks
• 10.3.1 The atomic nature of magnetisation
• 10.3.2 Magnetic domains
• 10.3.3 Curie and blocking temperatures
• 10.3.4 Thermal remanent magnetisation (TRM)
• 10.3.5 Magnetic minerals
• 10.3.6 Mechanisms that magnetise rocks at ambient temperature
• 10.4 Testing when the remanence was acquired
• 10.4.1 Laboratory tests
• 10.4.2 Field tests
• 10.5 Magnetostratigraphy
• 10.5.1 The magnetic polarity timescale
• 10.5.2 Magnetic polarity stratigraphy
• 10.5.3 Magnetic stratigraphy utilising secular variation and excursions
• 10.6 Mineral magnetism
• 10.7 Magnetic fabric: Susceptibility anisotropy
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Chapter 11: Magnetic Surveying
• 11.1 Magnetic surveying
• 11.1.1 Anomaly of a buried magnet
• 11.1.2 Magnetometers
• 11.1.3 Data acquisition
• 11.1.4 Data reduction
• 11.2 Anomalies of some simply shaped bodies
• 11.2.1 Magnetic poles and fields
• 11.2.2 The field of a dipole
• 11.2.3 Anomaly of a dipole, or small body
• 11.2.4 Anomaly of a sphere
• 11.2.5 Anomaly of a vertical sheet
• 11.3 Depth of the body
• 11.4 Remanent and induced magnetisation
• 11.5 Computer modelling
• 11.6 More advanced processing of data
• 11.6.1 Reduction to the pole
• 11.6.2 Pseudogravity
• 11.6.3 Upward and downward continuation
• 11.7 Magnetic gradiometry
• 11.8 The Blairgowrie magnetic anomaly: A case study
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Subpart I.5: Electrical
• Chapter 12: Resistivity Methods
• 12.1 Basic electrical quantities
• 12.2 Resistivity surveying
• 12.2.1 Resistivities of rocks and minerals
• 12.2.2 How electricity flows through rocks
• 12.2.3 The need for four electrodes
• 12.3 Vertical electric sounding, VES: Measuring layered structures
• 12.3.1 The basic concept
• 12.3.2 Refraction of current paths
• 12.3.3 Apparent resistivity
• 12.3.4 Carrying out a Wenner VES survey
• 12.3.5 Modelling the data
• 12.3.6 Other electrode arrays
• 12.3.7 Limitations of vertical electrical sounding
• 12.4 Resistivity profiling: Detecting lateral variations
• 12.4.1 Introduction
• 12.4.2 Some arrays for profiling
• 12.5 Electrical imaging
• 12.6 Designing and interpreting a resistivity survey
• 12.6.1 Choosing a resistivity array
• 12.6.2 Geological interpretation
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Chapter 13: Induced Polarisation and Self-Potential
• 13.1 Induced polarization, IP
• 13.1.1 What induced polarization is
• 13.1.2 Carrying out an IP survey
• 13.1.3 Data reduction and display
• 13.2 Self-potential, SP
• 13.2.1 What self-potential is
• 13.2.2 SP surveying
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Chapter 14: Electromagnetic Methods
• 14.1 Basic concepts
• 14.1.1 Electromagnetic induction
• 14.1.2 Factors that affect the signal
• 14.2 Some e-m systems
• 14.2.1 Moving transmitter–plus–receiver system (Slingram)
• 14.2.2 Turam system
• 14.3 Transient electromagnetic, TEM, systems
• 14.3.1 The basic concept
• 14.3.2 The INPUT system
• 14.4 Electromagnetic waves
• 14.4.1 Wavelengths
• 14.4.2 Absorption and attenuation of e-m waves
• 14.5 VLF (very-low-frequency) method
• 14.5.1 Basic concepts
• 14.5.2 Carrying out a VLF survey
• 14.6 Phase
• 14.7 Magnetotelluric, MT, surveying: Looking into the deep crust and mantle
• 14.7.1 Basic concepts
• 14.7.2 Carrying out an MT survey
• 14.8 Ground-penetrating radar, GPR
• 14.8.1 How ground-penetrating radar works
• 14.8.2 Velocity, reflection, penetration, and resolution
• 14.8.3 Data reduction
• 14.8.4 Uses of GPR surveys
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Subpart I.6: Radioactivity
• Chapter 15: The Ages of Rocks and Minerals: Radiometric Dating
• 15.1 The atomic clock
• 15.2 The uranium–lead (U–Pb) dating method
• 15.3 Assumptions of the Basic Dating Equation
• 15.4 The potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating method
• 15.4.1 The conventional K–Ar method
• 15.4.2 The argon-argon (Ar–Ar) method
• 15.5 The rubidium–strontium (Rb–Sr) dating method
• 15.6 The samarium–neodymium (Sm–Nd) dating method
• 15.7 The lead–lead (Pb–Pb) dating method
• 15.7.1 Theory of the method
• 15.7.2 The ‘age of the Earth’
• 15.8 Fission-track (FT) dating
• 15.9 What event is being dated?
• 15.9.1 Diffusion
• 15.9.2 Closure temperature
• 15.9.3 Cooling histories
• 15.9.4 Two dates from a single rock, using the Rb–Sr method
• 15.9.5 Two dates from a single rock, using the U–Pb discordia method
• 15.9.6 Dating palaeomagnetism of slowly cooled regions
• 15.10 Dating sedimentary rocks
• 15.11 The geological time scale
• 15.12 Dating young rocks
• 15.12.1 Uranium-series disequilibrium methods
• 15.12.2 Carbon-14 (14C) and other dating methods using cosmogenic isotopes
• 15.13 Why so many radiometric dating methods?
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Chapter 16: Radioactive Surveying
• 16.1 Radioactive radiations
• 16.2 γ ray surveys
• 16.2.1 Measurement: The γ ray spectrometer
• 16.2.2 Carrying out a γ ray survey
• 16.2.3 Geological mapping
• 16.3 Radon monitoring
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Subpart I.7: Geothermics
• Chapter 17: Geothermics: Heat and Temperature in the Earth
• 17.1 Basic ideas in geothermics
• 17.1.1 Introduction
• 17.1.2 Temperature and heat
• 17.1.3 How heat travels: Conduction and convection
• 17.1.4 Convection and conduction within the Earth
• 17.2 Heat flow and temperature
• 17.2.1 Measurement of heat flux
• 17.2.2 Oceanic lithosphere
• 17.2.3 Continental lithosphere and radioactivity
• 17.3 Effects of changes to the lithosphere
• 17.3.1 Thermal capacity
• 17.3.2 Filling of a sedimentary basin
• 17.3.3 Overthrusting and underthrusting
• 17.3.4 Crustal thickening and orogenies
• 17.4 Global heat flow and geothermal energy
• 17.4.1 Global heat flow
• 17.4.2 Sources of the Earth’s heat
• 17.4.3 Geothermal energy
• 17.5 The effect of surface temperature changes: A record of past climates
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Subpart I.8: Subsurface Geophysics
• Chapter 18: Well Logging and Other Subsurface Geophysics
• 18.1 Introduction
• 18.2 Drilling and its effects on the formations
• 18.3 Sources of information from a borehole: Logs
• 18.4 Geophysical well logging in the oil industry
• 18.5 The most commonly used logs
• 18.5.1 The measurement of strata dip, borehole inclination, and diameter
• 18.5.2 The self-potential log
• 18.5.3 Resistivity logs
• 18.5.4 Radioactivity logs
• 18.5.5 The sonic log
• 18.5.6 The temperature log
• 18.5.7 Cross plots
• 18.6 Geophysical logging outside the oil industry
• 18.6.1 Mineral exploration
• 18.6.2 Magnetic logs
• 18.6.3 The IP–resistivity log
• 18.7 Other well-logging applications
• 18.8 Other subsurface geophysics
• Summary
• Further reading
• Problems
• Part II: Examples of Applications
• Chapter 19: Which Geophysical Methods to Use?
• 19.1 Introduction
• 19.2 Does the problem have geophysical expression?
• 19.3 Is the variation lateral or vertical?
• 19.4 Is the signal detectable?
• 19.5 Will the result be clear enough to be useful?
• 19.6 Is a survey practicable?
• Problems
• Chapter 20: Global Tectonics
• 20.1 The basic concept of plate tectonics
• 20.2 Divergent, or constructive, margins
• 20.2.1 Ocean-floor magnetic anomalies
• 20.2.2 The shape of spreading ridges
• 20.3 Conservative margins
• 20.4 Convergent, or destructive, margins
• 20.4.1 Ocean–ocean convergent margins and subduction zones
• 20.4.2 Ocean–continent convergent margins
• 20.4.3 Continent–continent convergent margins
• 20.5 The geometry of plate tectonics
• 20.5.1 Poles of rotation
• 20.5.2 Triple junctions and plate evolution
• 20.6 The globe according to plate tectonics
• 20.7 Continental positions in the past
• 20.8 Crust formation at ridges
• 20.9 What moves the plates?
• 20.9.1 Forces on plates
• 20.9.2 The hot-spot frame of reference: Plate velocities
• 20.9.3 Deducing the dominant drive forces
• 20.9.4 Plate tectonics and mantle convection
• Summary
• Further Reading
• Problems
• Chapter 21: Is the Kenya Rift a New Plate Margin?   A Regional Geophysical Study
• 21.1 Introduction: The East African Rift System
• 21.2 Morphology and geology of the Kenya Rift
• 21.3 Gravity studies
• 21.4 Seismic surveys
• 21.4.1 The seismicity of Kenya
• 21.4.2 Teleseismic studies
• 21.4.3 Seismic refraction and wide-angle reflection surveys
• 21.5 Combined seismic and gravity models
• 21.6 Heat flow studies
• 21.7 Electrical conductivity
• 21.8 Summary
• Further reading
• Chapter 22: Hydrocarbon Exploration
• 22.1 Introduction: Energy sources and the demand for hydrocarbons
• 22.2 The origin and accumulation of hydrocarbons
• 22.3 Where sedimentary basins form
• 22.4 Exploration for petroleum
• 22.5 The West Sole gas field of the southern North Sea: A case study
• 22.6 The Forties oil field of the northern North Sea: A case study
• 22.6.1 Discovery and initial development of the field
• 22.6.2 Further development of the Forties field
• 22.7 The future
• Further reading
• Chapter 23: Exploration for Metalliferous Ores
• 23.1 Introduction: Metalliferous and other ore deposits
• 23.2 The formation of ores and their geophysical properties
• 23.3 Where ores form
• 23.4 Exploration for orebodies
• 23.5 The Elura Orebody, New South Wales, Australia: A case study
• 23.5.1 Background and reconnaissance surveys
• 23.5.2 Initial surveys of the Elura orebody
• 23.5.3 Evaluation of the deposit
• 23.5.4 Assessment of geophysical surveying methods
• Further reading
• Chapter 24: Volcanoes
• 24.1 Introduction: Types of eruption and damage
• 24.2 Methods for investigating volcanoes and monitoring activity
• 24.3 The 1989–1990 eruption of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska: A case study
• 24.3.1 Background
• 24.3.2 The 1989–1990 eruption
• 24.3.3 Monitoring of activity
• 24.4 Etna lava eruptions 1991–1993: A case study
• 24.4.1 Background
• 24.4.2 Deformation and microgravity
• 24.4.3 The 1991–1993 eruption
• Further reading
• Chapter 25: The Chicxulub Structure and the K/T Mass Extinction
• 25.1 Introduction
• 25.2 Impacts and craters
• 25.3 The Chicxulub structure
• 25.3.1 Background
• 25.3.2 The structure of Chicxulub
• 25.3.3 Ages of the Chicxulub structure and ejecta
• 25.3.4 The Manson Crater
• 25.4 Giant eruptions
• 25.5 Conclusions to date
• Further reading
• Chapter 26: Hydrogeology and Contaminated Land
• 26.1 Introduction
• 26.2 Aquifers
• 26.3 Geophysical methods useful in hydrogeology
• 26.4 GPR surveying of the water table, the Netherlands: An example
• 26.4.1 Background
• 26.4.2 Offsets of the water table
• 26.5 Structural control of aquifers in East Anglia, England: A case study
• 26.5.1 Introduction
• 26.5.2 Geophysical surveys
• 26.6 Saline contamination of the Crag aquifer, East Anglia: A case study
• 26.6.1 Background
• 26.6.2 Geophysical surveys
• 26.7 Landfill sites and contaminated ground
• 26.7.1 Introduction
• 26.7.2 Investigation of a landfill in northern England: A case study
• 26.7.3 Landfill monitoring: A case study
• Further reading
• Chapter 27: Location of Cavities and Voids
• 27.1 Introduction
• 27.2 Possible geophysical techniques for locating cavities
• 27.2.1 Seismic methods
• 27.2.2 Electrical methods
• 27.2.3 Magnetic methods
• 27.2.4 Gravity methods
• 27.2.5 Fracturing around cavities
• 27.3 Collapses in buried karstic terrain, Kuwait: A case study
• 27.3.1 Background
• 27.3.2 Gravity survey
• 27.4 Land reclamation, south Wales: A case study
• 27.4.1 Background
• 27.4.2 Gravity survey
• Further reading
• Chapter 28: Archaeological Site Surveying
• 28.1 Site surveying
• 28.2 Archaeological features and their geophysical expression
• 28.2.1 Ditches, pits, and postholes
• 28.2.2 Foundations
• 28.2.3 Furnaces, fireplaces, and kilns
• 28.3 Geophysical methods useful for archaeological surveying
• 28.3.1 Magnetic and susceptibility surveys
• 28.3.2 Resistivity surveys
• 28.3.3 Ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
• 28.3.4 Other techniques
• 28.3.5 Display of data
• 28.4 A possible Roman villa: A case study
• 28.4.1 Background
• 28.4.2 Geophysical surveys
• 28.5 Hudson’s Bay Company fur trade post: A case study
• 28.5.1 Background
• 28.5.2 Geophysical surveys
• Further reading
• Appendix A: List of Symbols and Abbreviations
• Appendix B: Answers to Problems
• Bibliography
• Figure Sources
• Index
• Color Plates