Efnisyfirlit

• Contents
• Acknowledgements for Reasoning Test Questions
• chapter 1 critical thinking
• 1.1 What is critical thinking?
• 1.2 What is critical thinking not?
• 1.3 Why is critical thinking important?
• 1.4 Why do we typically not think critically? (why do we need a course in critical thinking?)
• 1.5 Template for critical analysis of arguments
• Review of terms
• Thinking critically about what you see
• Thinking critically about what you hear
• Thinking critically about what you read
• Thinking critically about what you write
• Thinking critically when you discuss
• Reasoning test questions
• chapter 2 the nature of argument
• 2.1 The nature of argument
• 2.2 Recognizing an argument
• 2.2a Practice recognizing premises and conclusions
• 2.2b Practice using standard form
• 2.2c Practice distinguishing arguments from non-arguments
• 2.2d More practice distinguishing arguments from non-arguments
• 2.3 Identifying implied conclusions and unstated premises (assumptions)
• 2.3a Practice articulating implied conclusions
• 2.3b Practice articulating unstated premises
• 2.3c Practice identifying missing connections
• 2.3d More practice identifying implied arguments
• 2.4 Circular arguments (an error in reasoning)
• 2.4a Practice identifying circular arguments
• 2.4b More practice with circular arguments
• 2.5 Counterarguments
• 2.5a Practice recognizing counterarguments
• 2.5b Practice constructing counterarguments
• 2.6 Identifying the issue of contention
• 2.6a Practice identifying the issue of contention
• 2.7 The burden of proof
• 2.7a Practice recognizing the correct placement of the burden of proof
• 2.8 The appeal to ignorance (an error in reasoning)
• 2.8a Practice recognizing an appeal to ignorance (an error in reasoning)
• 2.8b More practice with appeals to ignorance
• 2.9 Facts and opinions
• 2.9a Practice distinguishing facts from opinions
• 2.10 Deductive and inductive argument
• Review of terms
• Thinking critically about what you see
• Thinking critically about what you hear
• Thinking critically about what you read
• Thinking critically about what you write
• Thinking critically when you discuss
• Reasoning test questions
• chapter 3 the structure of argument
• 3.1 The structure of argument
• 3.2 Convergent, single
• 3.2a Practice identifying single convergent arguments
• 3.2b Practice diagramming single convergent arguments
• 3.2c Practice constructing single convergent arguments
• 3.3 Convergent, multiple-separate
• 3.3a Practice identifying multiple-separate convergent arguments
• 3.3b Practice diagramming multiple-separate convergent arguments
• 3.3c Practice constructing multiple-separate convergent arguments
• 3.4 Convergent, multiple-linked
• 3.4a Practice identifying multiple-linked convergent arguments
• 3.4b Practice diagramming multiple-linked convergent arguments
• 3.4c Practice constructing multiple-linked convergent arguments
• 3.5 Divergent
• 3.5a Practice identifying divergent arguments
• 3.5b Practice diagramming divergent arguments
• 3.5c Practice constructing divergent arguments
• 3.6 Multi-structured arguments
• 3.6a Practice identifying causal chains
• 3.6b Practice diagramming causal chains
• 3.6c Practice constructing causal chains
• 3.6d Practice diagramming multi-structured arguments
• 3.6e Practice constructing multi-structured arguments
• Review of terms
• Thinking critically about what you see
• Thinking critically about what you hear
• Thinking critically about what you read
• Thinking critically about what you write
• Thinking critically when you discuss
• Reasoning test questions
• chapter 4 relevance
• 4.1 Relevance
• 4.1a Practice identifying irrelevant premises
• 4.1b Practice filling in the steps needed to make a premise relevant
• 4.2 Errors of relevance: considering the source of the argument instead of the argument itself
• 4.2.1 Appeal to the person (ad hominem)
• (i) APPEALS TO THE PERSON’S CHARACTER
• 4.2.1a Practice recognizing appeals to the person’s character (an error in reasoning)
• (ii) APPEALS TO THE PERSON’S PRACTICES
• 4.2.1b Practice recognizing appeals to the person’s practices (an error in reasoning)
• (iii) APPEALS TO THE PERSON’S INTERESTS
• 4.2.1c Practice recognizing appeals to the person’s interests (an error in reasoning)
• 4.2.1d More practice with the ad hominem error
• 4.2.2 Genetic fallacy
• 4.2.2a Practice recognizing the genetic fallacy
• 4.2.2b More practice with the genetic fallacy
• 4.2.2c Practice recognizing errors of relevance that consider the source of the argument instead of the argument itself
• 4.3 Errors of relevance: appealing to an inappropriate standard
• 4.3.1 Appeal to inappropriate authority
• 4.3.1a Practice recognizing appeals to inappropriate authority
• 4.3.1b More practice with appeals to inappropriate authority
• 4.3.2 Appeal to tradition or past practice
• 4.3.2a Practice recognizing an appeal to tradition or past practice
• 4.3.2b More practice with appeals to tradition or past practice
• 4.3.3 Appeal to custom, habit, or common practice
• 4.3.3a Practice recognizing an appeal to custom, habit, or common practice
• 4.3.3b More practice with appeals to custom, habit, or common practice
• 4.3.4 Appeal to moderation (or lack of)
• (i) AN APPEAL TO MODERATION (ALSO CALLED THE FALLACY OF THE GOLDEN MEAN)
• 4.3.4a Practice recognizing an appeal to moderation
• 4.3.4b More practice with appeals to moderation
• (ii) AN APPEAL TO THE EXTREME
• 4.3.4c Practice recognizing an appeal to the extreme
• 4.3.4d More practice with appeals to the extreme
• 4.3.5 Appeal to popularity (or lack of)
• (i) APPEAL TO THE MAJORITY (ALSO CALLED THE BANDWAGON FALLACY)
• 4.3.5a Practice recognizing an appeal to the majority
• 4.3.5b More practice with appeals to the majority
• (ii) APPEAL TO THE MINORITY, APPEAL TO THE AUTHORITY OF THE ELITE
• 4.3.5c Practice recognizing an appeal to the minority
• 4.3.5d More practice with appeals to the minority
• 4.3.6 “Two wrongs”
• 4.3.6a Practice recognizing the “two wrongs” fallacy
• 4.3.6b More practice with the “two wrongs” fallacy
• 4.3.6c Practice recognizing errors of relevance that appeal to an inappropriate standard
• 4.4 Errors of relevance: going off-topic
• 4.4.1 Paper tiger (also called the straw man fallacy)
• 4.4.1a Practice recognizing paper tigers
• 4.4.1b More practice with paper tigers
• 4.4.2 Red herring
• 4.4.2a Practice recognizing red herrings
• 4.4.2b More practice with red herrings
• 4.4.3 Non sequitur
• 4.4.3a Practice recognizing non sequiturs
• 4.4.3b More practice with non sequiturs
• 4.4.4 Appeal to emotion
• 4.4.4a Practice recognizing appeals to emotion
• 4.4.4b More practice with appeals to emotion
• 4.4.4c Practice recognizing errors of relevance that go off-topic
• 4.4.4d More practice recognizing irrelevant comments
• Review of terms
• Thinking critically about what you see
• Thinking critically about what you hear
• Thinking critically about what you read
• Thinking critically about what you write
• Thinking critically when you discuss
• Reasoning test questions
• chapter 5 language
• 5.1 Clarity
• 5.1.1 Precise diction
• 5.1.1a Practice recognizing and improving imprecise diction
• 5.1.1b More practice recognizing and improving imprecise diction
• 5.1.2 Precise grammar
• 5.1.2a Practice recognizing and improving imprecise grammar
• 5.1.2b More practice recognizing and improving imprecise grammar
• 5.1.3 Repetition
• 5.1.3a Practice recognizing repetition
• 5.1.4 Detail
• 5.1.4a Practice recognizing the need for detail
• 5.1.4b More practice recognizing the need for detail
• 5.1.5 Beware of manipulation
• 5.2 Neutrality
• 5.2.1 Loaded language
• 5.2.1a Practice recognizing and rewriting loaded words or phrases
• 5.2.1b More practice recognizing and rewriting loaded words and phrases
• 5.2.1c Practice recognizing and rewriting loaded styles of speech
• 5.2.1d Practice recognizing and rewriting loaded language
• 5.2.2 Visual effects
• 5.2.2a Practice recognizing loaded visual effects
• 5.2.2b More practice recognizing loaded visual effects
• 5.2.3 Aural effects
• 5.2.3a Practice recognizing loaded aural effects
• 5.2.3b More practice recognizing loaded visual and aural effects
• 5.2.4 Other effects
• 5.3 Definition
• 5.3.1 Genus and species
• 5.3.1a Practice identifying genus and species
• 5.3.1b Practice defining by genus and species
• 5.3.2 Necessary and sufficient conditions
• 5.3.2a Practice identifying necessary and sufficient conditions
• 5.3.2b Practice defining by necessary and sufficient conditions
• 5.3.3 Inclusiveness and exclusiveness
• 5.3.3a Practice identifying and correcting definitions that are too broad or too narrow (or both)
• 5.3.3b Practice constructing good definitions
• 5.3.4 Equivocation (an error in reasoning)
• 5.3.4a Practice identifying the error of equivocation
• 5.3.4b Practice making an argument without equivocation
• Review of terms
• Thinking critically about what you see
• Thinking critically about what you hear
• Thinking critically about what you read
• Thinking critically about what you write
• Thinking critically when you discuss
• Reasoning test questions
• chapter 6 truth and acceptability
• 6.1 Truth and acceptability
• 6.1.1 Truth
• 6.1.2 Acceptability
• 6.1.2a Practice determining whether truth or acceptability applies
• 6.1.2b More practice with the standards of truth and acceptability
• 6.1.2c Still more practice with the standards of truth and acceptability
• 6.2 How do we define truth? (theories of truth)
• 6.2.1 Subjectivism
• 6.2.2 The coherence theory
• 6.2.3 The correspondence theory
• 6.2.4 Pragmatism
• 6.3 How do we discover truth?
• 6.3.1 Innate ideas and/or experience and/or reason?
• 6.3.2 Random personal experience
• 6.3.3 Methodical investigation: the scientific process
• 6.4 How do we evaluate claims of truth?
• 6.4.1 Evaluating personal testimony
• 6.4.1a Practice determining whether personal testimony is acceptable
• 6.4.2 Evaluating studies (surveys, experiments, numbers)
• SURVEYS
• 6.4.2a Practice determining whether survey results are acceptable
• EXPERIMENTS
• 6.4.2b Practice determining whether experiment results are acceptable
• NUMBERS
• 6.4.2c Practice determining whether “the numbers” are acceptable
• 6.4.3 Evaluating sources
• 6.4.3a Practice determining whether sources are acceptable
• 6.4.4 Evaluating images
• 6.4.4a Practice determining whether images are acceptable
• 6.5 Errors of truth
• 6.5a Practice recognizing counterevidence
• 6.5b Practice “constructing” counterevidence
• 6.5.1 The either/or fallacy
• 6.5.1a Practice recognizing the either/or fallacy
• 6.5.1b More practice with the either/or fallacy
• 6.5.2 The fallacy of composition
• 6.5.2a Practice recognizing the fallacy of composition
• 6.5.2b More practice with the fallacy of composition
• 6.5.3 The fallacy of division
• 6.5.3a Practice recognizing the fallacy of division
• 6.5.3b More practice with the fallacy of division
• 6.5.4 The gambler’s fallacy
• 6.5.4a Practice recognizing the gambler’s fallacy
• 6.5.4b More practice with the gambler’s fallacy
• 6.5.4c Practice recognizing errors of truth
• Review of terms
• Thinking critically about what you see
• Thinking critically about what you hear
• Thinking critically about what you read
• Thinking critically about what you write
• Thinking critically when you discuss
• Reasoning test questions
• Footnotes
• chapter 7 generalization, analogy, and general principle
• 7.1 Sufficiency
• 7.1a Practice identifying when and what additional information is required
• 7.2 Generalization
• 7.2a Practice imagining counterexamples
• 7.2b Practice recognizing generalizations
• 7.2c More practice with generalizations
• 7.2.1 Overgeneralization (an error)
• 7.2.1a Practice recognizing an overgeneralization
• 7.2.1b More practice with overgeneralizations
• 7.2.2 Insufficient sample (an error)
• 7.2.2a Practice recognizing an insufficient sample
• 7.2.2b More practice with insufficient samples
• 7.2.3 Unrepresentative sample (an error)
• 7.2.3a Practice recognizing an unrepresentative sample
• 7.2.3b More practice with unrepresentative samples
• 7.3 Analogy
• 7.3a Practice identifying arguments by analogy
• 7.3b More practice with arguments by analogy
• 7.3.1 Weak or false analogy (an error)
• 7.3.1a Practice recognizing weak or false analogies
• 7.3.1b More practice with weak or false analogies
• 7.4 General principle
• 7.4a Practice identifying arguments by application of a general principle
• 7.4b More practice with arguments by application of a general principle
• 7.4.1 Misapplied general principle (an error)
• 7.4.1a Practice recognizing misapplied general principles
• 7.4.1b More practice with misapplied general principles
• 7.4.1c Practice recognizing errors of generalization, analogy, and application of a general principle
• Review of terms
• Thinking critically about what you see
• Thinking critically about what you hear
• Thinking critically about what you read
• Thinking critically about what you write
• Thinking critically when you discuss
• Reasoning test questions
• Footnotes
• chapter 8 inductive argument: causal reasoning
• 8.1 Causation
• 8.1.1 Correlation and causation
• 8.1.1a Practice distinguishing between correlation and causation
• 8.1.2 Cause, time, and space
• 8.1.3 Direct and indirect causes
• 8.1.3a Practice distinguishing between direct causes and indirect causes
• 8.1.4 Necessary and sufficient causes
• 8.1.4a Practice distinguishing between necessary and sufficient causes
• 8.1.5 Mill’s methods
• 8.1.5a Practice identifying Mill’s methods
• 8.1.5b Practice using Mill’s methods to establish cause
• 8.2 Explanations
• 8.2.1 Alternative explanations
• 8.2.1a Practice forming alternative explanations
• 8.2.2 Good explanations
• 8.2.2a Practice comparing explanations on the basis of the scope of their explanatory power
• 8.2.2b Practice comparing explanations on the basis of their creating-puzzles-ness
• 8.2.2c Practice determining whether an explanation is testable (and can enable prediction)
• 8.2.2d Practice determining whether an explanation contradicts established knowledge
• 8.2.2e Practice identifying best explanations
• 8.3 Predictions, plans, and policies
• 8.3a Practice identifying arguments that advocate a plan or policy
• 8.3b Practice imagining an appropriate plan or policy
• 8.3c Practice assessing whether a plan or policy will work
• 8.4 Errors in causal reasoning
• 8.4.1 Mistaking correlation for causation
• 8.4.1a Practice recognizing when correlation is mistaken for causation
• 8.4.1b More practice with correlation and causation
• 8.4.2 Post hoc ergo propter hoc
• 8.4.2a Practice recognizing the post hoc error
• 8.4.2b More practice with the post hoc error
• 8.4.3 Failing to consider a common cause
• 8.4.3a Practice recognizing a failure to consider a common cause
• 8.4.3b More practice with common causes
• 8.4.4 Failing to consider additional causes
• 8.4.4a Practice recognizing a failure to consider additional causes
• 8.4.4b More practice with additional causes
• 8.4.5 Reversing cause and effect
• 8.4.5a Practice recognizing a reversal of cause and effect
• 8.4.5b More practice with reversing cause and effect
• 8.4.6 Failing to consider a reciprocal causal relation
• 8.4.6a Practice recognizing a failure to consider a reciprocal causal relation
• 8.4.6b More practice with reciprocal causal relations
• 8.4.7 Slippery slope
• 8.4.7a Practice recognizing a slippery slope
• 8.4.7b More practice with slippery slopes
• 8.4.7c Practice recognizing errors in causal reasoning
• Review of terms
• Thinking critically about what you see
• Thinking critically about what you hear
• Thinking critically about what you read
• Thinking critically about what you write
• Thinking critically when you discuss
• Reasoning test questions
• appendix 1 extended arguments for analysis
• 1. The new know-nothingism: five myths about immigration
• 2. Rap and hip-hop’s negative impact on society
• 3. In defense of negative campaigning
• The value of negative campaigning
• 4. Television and violent crime
• 5. A crime by any other name
• 6. Does society have the right to force pregnant drug addicts to abort their fetuses?
• 1. Society has a duty to insure that infants are born free of avoidable defects
• 2. Those defects caused by chemical abuse of the pregnant mother are easily avoidable
• 3. Therefore, society can justifiably prevent pregnant addicts from giving birth
• 7. Condoms: the new diploma
• 8. It’s OK to vote for Obama because he’s black
• 9. The argument for an obligationto assist
• Objections to the argument
• Taking care of our own
• Property rights
• Population and the ethics of triage
• 10. All the reasons to clone human beings
• 11. Why people watch reality TV
• 12. “If a tree falls …”—letters by John Palmer and Eugene Tan, and “The economics of extinction”
• Letter to the editor from John Palmer
• Letter to the editor from Eugene Tan
• The economics of extinction
• Invited response from John Palmer
• 13. House of Representatives debate on the “Personal Responsibility in Food Consumption Act”
• The Honorable Chris Cannon (Representative in Congress from the State of Utah, and Chairman, Subcommittee on Commercial and Administrative Law)
• Banzhaf (Professor, George Washington University Law School)
• Schwartz (Shook, Hardy & Bacon law firm)
• Watt (Representative in Congress from the State of North Carolina, and Ranking Member, Subcommittee on Commercial and Administrative Law)
• Declared Statement of Neal D. Barnard (President, Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine)
• Declared Statement of Richard Berman (Executive Director, Center for Consumer Freedom)
• 14. Who is Peter Singer and why should you care about him?
• 15. Twitter nation has arrived
• 16. Put on your bras, shave your armpits and quit your bitching
• appendix 2 errors of reasoning
• Absence of reasoning
• Weak reasoning
• Relevance
• Truth
• Sufficiency
• Errors in reasoning
• Errors of definition
• Errors of form
• Errors of relevance
• Errors of truth
• Errors of sufficiency
• Errors of assumption (mistakenly assuming something to be true, relevant, or sufficient)
• Errors of causality
• Errors of response
• Considering the source of the argument instead of the argument itself
• Appealing to an inappropriate standard
• Passing the buck instead of making the argument yourself
• Going off-topic
• Glossary
• Index