Efnisyfirlit

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• About the Authors
• Reviewers
• 1 Radiation Protection Overview
• Introduction
• A Rationale for Radiation Protection
• Data Sources on Biological Effects
• Dose-response Models
• Biological Effects
• The Philosophy of Radiation Protection
• The ICRP Framework
• Radiation Dose Limits
• Radiation Protection Concepts
• Historical Perspectives
• The Four Quartets of Radiation Protection
• X-Ray Dosimetry
• Dose-Image Quality Optimization
• Diagnostic Reference Levels
• Radiation Protection Organizations and Reports
• Organizations
• Reports and Publications
• Radiation Protection and the Technologist
• Responsibilities: Four Major Components
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 2 Basic Physics for Radiation Protection: An Overview
• Introduction
• Atomic Structure
• The Element
• The Atom
• The Nucleus of an Atom
• Electrons
• Types of Radiation
• Particulate Radiations
• Electromagnetic Radiation
• X-Rays and Gamma Rays
• Ionizing Radiation
• X-Ray and Gamma Radiation Interactions
• X-Ray Interactions I: Elastic (or Coherent or Rayleigh) Scattering
• X-Ray Interactions II: Photoelectric Absorption
• X-Ray Interactions III: Compton Scattering
• X-Ray Interactions IV: Pair Production
• Descriptive Terms or Concepts Associated with Radiation
• Linear Energy Transfer (LET)
• Linear Attenuation Coefficient
• Mass Attenuation Coefficient
• Inverse Square Law
• Discussion Questions
• Reference
• 3 Radiation Exposure and Dose Units
• Introduction
• Radiation: A Natural History
• Sources of Radiation Exposure
• Natural Background Sources
• Man-Made (Non-Medical) Radiation Sources
• Sources of Exposure in Medicine
• Diagnostic Exposures
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Therapy
• Footnote to Medical Radiation Doses
• Basic Dosimetric Quantities and Units
• Units of Exposure
• Quantities of Radiation Dose
• Absorbed Dose
• Equivalent Dose
• Effective Dose
• Collective Effective Dose
• Kinetic Energy Released Per Unit Mass (Kerma)
• Patient Doses in Diagnostic Imaging
• Staff Doses in Diagnostic Imaging
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 4 The Radiobiology of Low-Dose Radiation
• Introduction
• Stochastic Effects
• Background
• Basic Principles and Debate Over Risks with Low-Dose Exposures
• Linear No-Threshold (LNT) Model
• Do Diagnostic X-Ray Exposures Present Any Risk to Humans?
• Mechanisms of Radiation-Induced Change Responsible for Stochastic Risks
• DNA and Cell Repair Mechanisms Following Irradiation
• How Long Does it Take for Damaged DNA to Manifest Itself in Man?
• Deterministic Effects
• Factors Influencing Stochastic Risk or Deterministic Effects at Low-Dose Exposures
• Radiosensitivity of the Cell
• Kinetics
• Presence of Oxygen
• Dose Rate
• Radioprotectants and Radiosensitizers
• Changes in Non-Irradiated Cells
• Genomic Instability
• Bystander Effect
• Epigenetics
• Effects of Radiation on Children, Embryos, and Fetuses
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 5 Radiation Protection Practice
• Introduction
• Dose Risks in Diagnostic Imaging
• Justification
• Optimization
• Optimization Initiatives
• Optimization and Cost
• Optimization: Image Quality Versus Diagnostic Efficacy
• Radiation Dose Limits
• Radiation Detection and Measurement
• Thermoluminescent Dosimetry
• Dose-Area Product Meters (DAPs)
• Solid-State Meters
• Radiochromic Film
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 6 Radiation Protection Organizations
• Introduction
• International Organizations
• International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)
• International Commission on Radiation Unit and Measurement (ICRU)
• United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR)
• Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF)
• Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation Committee (BEIR)
• National Organizations
• National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP)
• Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH)
• Radiation Protection Bureau-Health Canada (RPB-HC)
• National Radiological Protection Board-United Kingdom (NRPB-UK)
• Definition of Terms Used in Reports
• ICRP’s Definitions
• NCRP’s Definitions
• RPB-HC’s Definitions
• Radiation Protection Recommendations–Common Elements
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 7 Factors Affecting Dose in Radiographic Imaging
• Introduction
• System Components Affecting Dose: an Overview
• Radiographic Systems: Exposure Components
• Clinical Factors
• Responsibility of Referring Physicians
• Role of the Technologist
• Role of the Radiologist
• Responsibility of the Patient
• Responsibilities and Radiation Protection
• Technical Factors in Radiography
• Exposure Technique Factors
• Automatic Exposure Control
• X-Ray Generator Waveform
• Filtration
• Collimation and Field Size
• Beam Alignment
• Source-to-Image Receptor Distance/Source-to-Skin Distance
• Patient Thickness and Density
• Anti-Scatter Grids
• Sensitivity of the Image Receptor
• Film Processing
• Repeat Radiographic Examinations
• Repeat Rates in Digital Radiography
• Shielding Radio-Sensitive Organs
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 8 Factors Affecting Dose in Fluoroscopy
• Introduction
• Radiation Effects From Fluoroscopic X-Ray Exposure
• Fluoroscopy Systems: Types and Major Components
• Image Intensifier-Based Fluoroscopic System
• The Flat-Panel Digital Detector-Based Fluoroscopy System
• Major Dose Factors in Fixed Fluoroscopic Imaging Systems
• Fluoroscopic Exposure Factors
• Fluoroscopic Instrumentation Factors
• Major Factors in Mobile Fluoroscopy Systems
• C-Arm Computed Tomography Fluoroscopy
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 9 Dose in Digital Radiography
• Introduction
• Film-Screen Technology
• The Digital Imaging Era: A New Paradigm
• Exposure Creep
• Highlighting Inappropriate Exposures
• Principles of Exposure Indices
• Scientific Criteria for Proposed Exposure Indices
• Practical Criteria for Proposed Exposure Indices
• How are Exposure Indices Established?
• What are the Options?
• Exposure Indices Represent the Exposure
• Previous Manufacturer Solutions
• Aapm Tg 116 Solution
• Deviation Index
• Why an Exposure Index?
• Deviation Index Action Levels
• IEC Publication
• What Can Be Gained From Audits of Exposure Index?
• Other Factors to Consider with the Exposure Index
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 10 Radiation Dose in Computed Tomography
• Introduction
• Early Pioneering Work: Nobel Prize for CT Development
• The CT Process: Basic Principles and Major Components
• Data Flow in a CT Scanner
• Multislice CT Technology: The Pitch
• CT Image Quality Characteristics: An Overview
• Risks of CT: A Rationale for Dose Reduction and Optimization
• CT Dose Descriptors
• The CTDI
• The Dose Length Product
• Factors Affecting Dose in CT
• Exposure Technique Factors: mAs and kVp
• Collimation
• Pitch
• Patient Centering
• Automatic Tube Current Modulation
• Iterative Image Reconstruction
• Dose-Image Quality Optimization Research in CT
• An Example of CT Dose Optimization Study
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 11 Image Quality Assessment Tools for Dose Optimization in Digital Radiography
• Introduction
• Radiation Dose Quantities
• Image Quality in Digital Radiography
• What is Image Quality?
• Assessment of Image Quality
• Visual Grading of Normal Anatomy
• Visual Grading Analysis
• Dose Optimization Research
• Example of a Dose Optimization Study in Computed Radiography
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 12 Diagnostic Reference Levels
• Introduction
• Patient Dose Variations
• Historical Perspective
• Patient Dose Variations Today
• What are Diagnostic Reference Levels (DRLs)?
• DRLs: An Overview
• DRLs: A Definition
• What are Diagnostic Reference Levels Not?
• Why is It Important to Implement DRLs?
• Have DRLs Reduced Doses?
• Establishment of Diagnostic Reference Values
• The Survey to Establish Current Dose Levels
• Calculation of DRL Values
• Pediatric DRL Values
• Diagnostic Reference Levels: A Global Activity
• Practical Considerations When Gathering The Data
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 13 Optimization of Radiation Protection: Regulatory and Guidance Recommendations
• Introduction
• Radiation Protection Reports
• Optimization of Radiation Protection
• Education and Training
• Equipment Specifications
• Personnel Practices
• Shielding
• Equipment Design and Performance Recommendations
• Radiographic Equipment: General Recommendations
• Radiographic Equipment: Specific Recommendations
• Fluoroscopic Equipment
• Mobile Radiographic Equipment
• Recommendations for Personnel Practices
• Protection of Personnel
• Protection of Patients
• Recommendations for Radiography in Pregnancy
• Recommendations for Quality Assurance
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 14 Protective Shielding in Diagnostic Radiology
• Introduction
• X-Ray Tube Shielding
• X-Ray Room Shielding
• Radioprotective Materials
• General Principles
• Primary and Secondary Barriers
• How is the Amount of Shielding Calculated?
• The Formulae
• The Planning Process
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 15 Radiation Protection Through Quality Control
• Introduction
• Definitions of QA and QC
• Quality Assurance (QA)
• Quality Control (QC)
• Dose Optimization
• Levels of Optimization
• QC Concepts Leading to Dose Optimization
• The Tolerance Limit in QC Testing
• Exceeding the Tolerance Limit
• Dose Reduction/Optimization as a Consequence of QC
• Discussion Questions
• References
• Appendix A: ARRT Exam Specifications Content Map
• Appendix B: ASRT Objectives Content Map
• Index