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• Half Title Page
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Series Editor’s Note
• Preface
• Contents
• Part I. Instrument Development and Analysis
• 1. Introduction
• Problems in Social Science Measurement
• What is Measurement Theory?
• Measurement Defined
• The Nominal Level of Measurement
• The Ordinal Level of Measurement
• The Interval Level of Measurement
• The Ratio Level of Measurement
• Criticisms of Stevens’s Levels of Measurement
• A Brief History of Testing
• The Chinese Civil Service Examinations
• Testing in Ancient Greece
• Early European Testing
• Testing in the United States
• Testing in Business and Industry
• Personality Assessment
• Summary
• Exercises
• 2. Norms and Standardized Scores
• Which to Use?
• Norm Groups
• Important Characteristics of the Norm Group: The “Three R’s”
• Types of Norm-referenced Scores
• Percentile Ranks
• Standardized and Normalized Scores
• Stanines
• Normal Curve Equivalents
• Developmental-Level Scores
• Criterion-Referenced Testing
• Summary
• Exercises
• 3. The Test Development Process
• Steps in Scale Development
• State the Purpose of the Scale
• Identify and Define the Domain
• Determine Whether a Measure Already Exists
• Determine the Item Format
• Write Out the Testing Objectives
• Create the Initial Item Pool
• Conduct the Initial Item Review
• Conduct Preliminary Item Tryouts
• Conduct a Large-Scale Field Test of Items
• Prepare Guidelines for Administration
• Summary
• Exercises
• 4. Writing Cognitive Items
• Objective Item Types
• Multiple-Choice Items
• True–False Items
• Matching Items
• Short-Answer or Completion Items
• Performance Assessments
• Essay Questions
• Performance Tasks
• Summary
• Exercises
• 5. Writing Noncognitive Items
• Noncognitive Item Types
• Thurstone Scaling
• Likert Scaling
• Guttman Scaling
• Theories of Item Responding
• The Cognitive Process Model of Responding
• Item Responses as Social Encounters
• Problems in Measuring Noncognitive Outcomes
• Response Distortion
• Managing Response Distortion
• Practical Issues in Noncognitive Scale Construction
• Number of Scale Points
• Labeling of Response Options
• Inclusion of Negatively Oriented Items
• Including a Neutral Option
• Summary
• Exercises
• 6. Item Analysis for Cognitive and Noncognitive Items
• Item Analysis for Cognitive Items
• Item Difficulty
• Item Discrimination
• Evaluating the Distractors for Multiple-Choice Items
• Corrections for Guessing
• Summary of Analyses for Cognitive Items
• Item Analysis for Noncognitive Items
• Frequency Distributions and Descriptive Statistics
• Interitem Correlations
• Item–Total Correlations and Information from Reliability Analyses
• Group Comparisons
• Factor Analytic Methods
• Summary of Analyses for Noncognitive Items
• Use of Item Analysis Information
• Exercises
• Part II. Reliability and Validity
• 7. Introduction to Reliability and the Classical Test Theory Model
• What Is Reliability?
• Measurement Error and CTT
• More on CTT
• Properties of True and Error Scores in CTT
• The CTT Definition of Reliability
• Correlation between True and Observed Scores: The Reliability Index
• Parallel, Tau-Equivalent, and Congeneric Measures
• Reliability as the Correlation between Scores on Parallel Tests
• Summary
• Exercises
• 8. Methods of Assessing Reliability
• Internal Consistency
• Reliability of a Composite
• The Spearman–Brown Prophecy Formula and Split-Half Reliability
• Coefficient Alpha
• Other Internal Consistency Coefficients
• Recommended Values for Internal Consistency Indices
• Factors Affecting Internal Consistency Coefficient Values
• Computational Examples for Coefficient Alpha
• Test–Retest Reliability
• Factors Affecting Coefficients of Stability
• Recommended Values for Coefficients of Stability
• Alternate Forms Reliability
• Factors Affecting Coefficients of Equivalence
• Recommended Values for Coefficients of Equivalence
• Combining Alternate Forms and Test–Retest Reliability
• Factors Affecting Coefficients of Equivalence and Stability
• Recommended Values for Coefficients of Equivalence and Stability
• The Standard Error of Measurement
• Factors Affecting the SEM
• Using the SEM to Place Confidence Intervals around Scores
• Sample Dependence of Reliability Coefficients and the SEM
• Reliability of Difference Scores
• Summary
• Exercises
• 9. Interrater Agreement and Reliability
• Measures of Interrater Agreement
• Nominal Agreement
• Cohen’s Kappa
• Measures of Interrater Reliability
• Coefficient Alpha
• Intraclass Correlation
• Summary
• Exercises
• 10. Generalizability Theory
• Basic Concepts and Terminology
• Facets, Objects of Measurement, and Universe Scores
• Crossed and Nested Facets
• Random and Fixed Facets
• G Studies and D Studies
• The G Theory Model
• Computation of Variance Components
• Computation of Variance Components for a One-Facet Design
• Computation of Variance Components for a Two-Facet Design
• Variance Components for Nested Designs
• Variance Components for Designs with Fixed Facets
• Decision Studies
• Relative and Absolute Interpretations
• Calculating the G and Phi Coefficients
• Use of the D Study to Determine the Optimal Test Design
• Decision Studies with Nested or Fixed Facets
• Summary
• Exercises
• 11. Validity
• Validity Defined
• Traditional Forms of Validity Evidence: A Historical Perspective
• Original Validity Types
• Arguments against the “Tripartite” View of Validity
• Current Conceptualizations of Validity
• The Unified View of Validity
• Focus on Interpretation and Use of Test Scores
• Focus on Explanation and Cognitive Models
• Inclusion of Values and Test Consequences in the Validity Framework
• Obtaining Evidence of Validity
• Introduction to the Argument-Based Approach to Validity
• Types of Validity Evidence
• Summary
• Exercises
• Part III. Advanced Topics in Measurement Theory
• 12. Exploratory Factor Analysis
• The EFA–CFA Distinction
• The EFA Model
• The EFA Model: Diagrammatic Form
• The EFA Model: Equation Form
• Steps in Conducting EFA
• Extracting the Factors
• Determining the Number of Factors to Retain
• Rotating the Factors
• Interpreting the Factors
• Data Requirements for EFA
• Sample-Size Requirements
• Summary
• Exercises
• 13. Confirmatory Factor Analysis
• Differences between Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses
• Advantages of CFA
• CFA Model and Equations
• Steps in Conducting a CFA
• Model Specification
• Model Identification
• Estimation of Model Parameters
• Model Testing
• Respecification of the Model
• Data Preparation and CFA Assumptions
• Normality of Variable Distributions
• Variable Scales
• Outliers
• Missing Data
• Sampling Method
• Sample Size
• CFA-Based Reliability Estimation
• Tests of Parameter Estimate Equivalence
• Calculation of Coefficient Omega
• Summary
• Exercises
• 14. Item Response Theory
• Item Response Functions for IRT
• IRT Models
• The One-Parameter Logistic Model
• The Two-Parameter Logistic Model
• The Three-Parameter Logistic Model
• IRT Models for Polytomous Items
• Indeterminacy and Scaling
• Scaling for the Rasch Model
• Scaling for the 2PL and 3PL Models
• Invariance of Parameter Estimates
• Estimation
• Maximum Likelihood Estimation
• Bayesian Estimation Methods
• Sample Size Requirements
• Information, Standard Error of Measurement, and Reliability
• Maximum Likelihood Estimation
• EAP Estimation
• IRT Assumptions
• Correct Dimensionality
• Local Independence
• Functional Form
• IRT Applications
• Test Form Assembly
• Equating
• Computer Adaptive Testing Applications
• Differential Item Functioning Applications
• Summary
• Exercises
• 15. Diagnostic Classification Models
• Categorical Latent Variables for DCMs
• When to Use DCMs
• Attribute Profiles
• Diagnostic Classification Model: A Confirmatory Latent Class Model
• The Latent Class Model
• IRFs for DCMs
• The Log-Linear Cognitive Diagnosis Model: A General DCM
• Link Functions for DCMs
• The Q-Matrix
• IRF for Complex Structure Items
• Fully Extending the IRF for the LCDM
• Other General DCMs
• Submodels of the LCDM
• The Deterministic Inputs Noisy And Gate Model
• The Compensatory Reparameterized Unified Model
• The Deterministic Inputs Noisy Or Gate Model
• Other Models
• Which Model Should I Use?
• Examinee Classifications
• Summary
• Exercises
• 16. Bias, Fairness, and Legal Issues in Testing
• Impact, Item and Test Bias, Differential Item Functioning, and Fairness Defined
• Detecting Test and Item Bias
• Test Bias
• Item Bias
• Choosing a DIF Detection Method
• Purification of the Matching Variable
• Interpretation of DIF and Test Bias
• DIF as Construct-Irrelevant Variance
• Sources of Test Bias
• Test Fairness
• Universal Design
• Accommodations and Modifications
• Need for More Research on DIF and Test Bias
• Sensitivity Reviews
• Legal Issues in Testing
• Legislation under Which Tests Can Be Challenged
• Court Cases Relevant to Testing
• Summary
• Exercises
• 17. Standard Setting
• Common Elements of Standard-Setting Procedures
• Step 1: Select a Standard-Setting Procedure
• Step 2: Choose the Panelists
• Step 3: Prepare Descriptions of Each Performance Category
• Step 4: Train the Panelists to Use the Chosen Procedure
• Step 5: Collect Panelists’ Judgments
• Step 6: Provide Panelists with Feedback and Discuss
• Step 7: Collect a Second Set of Judgments and Create Recommended Cut Scores
• Step 8: Conduct an Evaluation of the Standard-Setting Process
• Step 9: Compile a Technical Report, Including Validity Evidence
• Standard-Setting Procedures
• The Angoff Method
• The Bookmark Procedure
• The Contrasting Groups Method
• The Borderline Group Method
• The Body of Work Method
• Validity Evidence for Standard Setting
• Procedural Evidence
• Internal Evidence
• External Evidence
• Summary
• Exercises
• 18. Test Equating
• Equating Defined
• Alternatives to Equating
• Equating Designs
• Single-Group Design
• Random-Groups Design
• Common Item Nonequivalent Groups Design
• Methods of Equating
• Mean Equating
• Linear Equating
• Equipercentile Equating
• IRT Equating Methods
• Practical Considerations in Equating
• Guidelines for Choosing Common Items
• Error in Equating
• Sample-Size Requirements
• Systematic Equating Error
• Choice of Equating Method
• Summary
• Exercises
• Answers to Exercises
• References
• Author Index
• Subject Index
• About the Author