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• Cover
• Endorsement
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Chapter 1 Introduction
• On the whole, students with additional learning needs have low levels of academic achievement
• There is a gap between research and practice for learners with additional learning needs
• What is meant by evidence-based teaching strategies?
• A word about terms and other things
• How do we know what works?
• Do learners with additional learning needs require distinctive teaching strategies?
• How is the book structured?
• The context is important
• How to use the book
• A final point: Be your own researcher
• Notes
• Part I Foundations
• Chapter 2 Evidence-based education
• Definition of evidence-based teaching strategies
• Criteria of good educational research
• Critiques of evidence in education
• Overemphasis on RCTs
• Much of published educational research is of poor quality
• Researchers often face strong incentives to report findings in the most favourable possible light
• Reliance on evidence can distort educational decision-making
• Issues relating to meta-analyses
• Resistance from university researchers
• Inadequate preparation of teachers
• Evidence is not readily available to educators in an accessible form
• Sometimes the researchers get it wrong
• Real life decision-making involves factors other than evidence
• The Dodo Bird Conjecture
• Centres specializing in gathering and disseminating evidence-based education policies and practices
• Council for Exceptional Children
• Centre for Educational Research and Innovation
• The International Campbell Collaboration
• Evidence-informed Policy and Practice in Education in Europe
• Arnold Ventures
• The Best Evidence Encyclopedia
• What Works Clearinghouse
• CEC’s High-leverage practices in special education
• What Works Centre for Education
• Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Coordinating Centre
• New Zealand’s Iterative Best Synthesis Programme
• The International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie)
• Conclusion
• Notes
• Chapter 3 Neuroscience
• Architecture of the brain and its various functions
• The executive system
• Neurological conditions
• Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
• Dyslexia
• Cerebral palsy
• Sensitive periods in brain development
• Infancy
• Adolescence
• Threats to brain development
• Acquired brain injury (sometimes referred to as ‘traumatic brain injury’)
• Prematurity
• Toxic stress
• Poverty
• Malnutrition
• Air pollution
• Neuroscience-based educational interventions
• Mathematics
• Reading
• Interleaving
• Exercise
• Executive function training
• Conclusion
• Notes
• Chapter 4 Inclusive education
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice of inclusive education
• Vision
• Placement
• Adapted curriculum
• Adapted assessment
• Adapted teaching
• Acceptance
• Access
• Support
• Resources
• Leadership
• Italy – a leader in inclusive education
• The evidence
• Positive findings
• Mixed, or neutral, findings
• Negative findings
• Conclusion
• Notes
• Chapter 5 An Ecological Model
• Notes
• Chapter 6 A Learning and Teaching Model
• Overview of model
• Detailed description of the Learning and Teaching Model
• The context
• Task demands (1A and 1B)
• Biological structures and functions (2)
• Primary memory (association) (3)
• Motivational states and personal dispositions (4 and 12)
• Goals
• Emotions
• Personal agency beliefs
• Executive system (5, 11, 13 and 19)
• Strategies (6 and 14)
• Secondary memory (7 and 15)
• Retrieval (8 and 16) and performance (9A/17A and 9B/17B)
• External response (10 and 18)
• Internal response (5/11/13/19)
• Conclusion
• Notes
• Part II Strategies
• A.  Behavioural strategies
• Chapter 7 Strategy 1: Behavioural assessment and approaches: ‘Solve problem behaviours by identifying and changing antecedents and consequences’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Functional behavioural assessment
• Controlling antecedents
• Controlling consequences
• Implementation
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 8 Strategy 2: Review and practice: ‘Practice makes perfect’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Give learners adequate opportunities to engage with the same idea on different occasions
• Use tests judiciously to improve remembering
• Give learners adequate opportunities to practise new skills in different contexts
• Ensure high success rates with practice activities
• Provide interleaving opportunities
• Give learners appropriate homework
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 9 Strategy 3: Direct instruction: ‘Make lessons highly structured, briskly paced and successful’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• 1. Explicit, systematic instruction
• 2. Scripted lesson plans
• 3. Emphasis on pace
• 4. High level of success
• 5. Frequent opportunities to practice targeted skills
• 6. Frequent curriculum-based assessment
• 7. Ability grouping
• 8. Mediated scaffolding
• 9. Embedded in other instructional strategies
• 10. Strategic integration
• 11. Lesson closure
• 12. Practice
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 10 Strategy 4: Formative assessment and feedback: ‘Regularly check and inform learners of their progress’
• The strategy
• The underlying ideas
• Assessment serves educational purposes
• How does formative assessment differ from summative assessment?
• The importance of probing for knowledge
• The value of feedback
• The practice
• Formative assessment (sometimes referred to as ‘formative evaluation’)
• Feedback (sometimes referred to as ‘formative feedback’)
• The evidence
• Formative assessment/evaluation
• Feedback
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 11 Strategy 5: School-wide positive behaviour support: ‘Take a proactive, multi-tiered, preventative, team-based approach to problem behaviours’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Team-based systems approach
• Proactive focus on prevention
• Evidence-based intervention
• Social skills instruction
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• B.  Social strategies
• Chapter 12 Strategy 6: Cooperative group teaching: ‘Help learners to learn from each other’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Your role in cooperative group teaching
• Ability grouping versus mixed ability grouping
• The evidence
• Cooperative learning
• Ability grouping versus mixed ability grouping
• Whole class versus group teaching
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 13 Strategy 7: Peer tutoring and peer influences: ‘Support peers to teach and support each other’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Putting peer tutoring into practice
• Ideas for class-wide peer tutoring
• Why does peer tutoring work?
• The evidence
• Peer tutoring
• Peer influences
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 14 Strategy 8: Social skills training: ‘Teach the foundations for positive social interactions’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• What do we mean by social skills?
• Why is social skills training needed?
• The practice
• Which social skills are important to teach?
• What are the steps in social skills training?
• How can social skills be taught?
• What about social skills for the digital world?
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 15 Strategy 9: Collaborative teaching: ‘Become an effective team player’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• General principles of collaboration
• Forms of collaboration
• 1. Co-teaching
• 2. Consultation
• 3. Partnerships with teacher aides/teaching assistants/paraprofessionals
• 4. Partnerships with specialists
• 5. Partnerships with parents
• 6. School-wide teams
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 16 Strategy 10: Family engagement and support: ‘Respect and engage with families’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• Why develop partnerships with parents?
• Why some parents may benefit from support
• The practice
• What do we mean by parent involvement?
• What helps the development of effective partnerships?
• How might you support parents?
• Parent Management Training
• The Incredible Years programme
• Triple P – Positive Parenting Programme
• The evidence
• Parent involvement
• Parent training (general)
• Parent Management Training
• The Incredible Years programme
• Triple P – Positive Parenting Program
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 17 Strategy 11: School culture: ‘Create a safe, respectful school environment that supports learning’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Develop a positive school culture through leadership
• Determine the optimal class size
• Further practices
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 18 Strategy 12: Classroom climate: ‘Create a safe, positive and motivating classroom environment’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Relationships
• Personal development
• System maintenance
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 19 Strategy 13: Social and emotional learning: ‘Help learners understand and manage their emotions and relationships’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 20 Strategy 14: Inter-agency cooperation: ‘Move from fragmented to coordinated services’
• 14.1 Wraparound intervention
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• 14.2 Full-service schools
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• 14.3 Children’s zones
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Notes
• C.  Cognitive strategies
• Chapter 21 Strategy 15: Cognitive strategy instruction: ‘Teach learners ways of thinking’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Generic CSI
• Domain-specific CSI
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 22 Strategy 16: Self-regulated learning: ‘Help learners take control of their own learning’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• SRL development
• A self-regulated problem-solving strategy
• Other ideas
• SRL in the classroom
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 23 Strategy 17: Memory strategies: ‘Help learners to remember important information’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Mnemonics is a successful strategy
• The keyword strategy
• The pegword strategy
• The letter strategy
• The picture strategy
• Motivation is essential for memory
• Attention is a key feature of memory
• Emotions play an important role in memory
• Pacing should be just right
• Rehearsal is usually necessary for memory
• Make key facts available in the learner’s primary memory
• Transform material into mental representations
• Increase memory storage and retrieval
• Chunking helps long-term memory
• The evidence
• Mnemonics
• Working memory
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 24 Strategy 18: Reading comprehension: ‘Actively engage learners with text’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Specific teaching strategies
• Vocabulary
• Oral language
• Prior knowledge
• Inferencing
• Motivation to read
• A word about assessment
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 25 Strategy 19: Comprehensive reading programmes: ‘Use an approach most likely to help learners to read’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Multi-tiered approaches
• Whole-class approaches
• Small group-based approaches
• One-to-one approaches
• Technology-based reading programmes
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 26 Strategy 20: Phonological awareness: ‘Use a sound reading strategy’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Listening strategies
• Word-level strategies
• Syllable strategies
• Phonemic/rhyming strategies
• Supporting phonological awareness for learners with complex communication needs
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• D.  Mixed Strategies
• Chapter 27 Strategy 21: Cognitive behavioural therapy: ‘Help learners change their negative thinking’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• The ABC Technique of Irrational Beliefs
• The FRIENDS emotional health programme
• Another example
• And another one
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 28 Strategy 22: Assistive technology: ‘Utilize all means to enhance learners’ skills’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Who can benefit from which assistive technology?
• Choosing the right AT device
• Integrating AT into daily lives
• Accessing online information
• Innovative technologies
• Mobile technologies
• Apps
• Wearables and sensing technology
• Augmented reality
• Virtual reality
• Artificial intelligence and interactive robotics
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 29 Strategy 23: Augmentative and alternative communication: ‘Utilize all means to support communication and language learning’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Access
• Gestures, manual signs, sign language
• Graphic signs and symbol systems
• Speech-generating devices (SGDs)
• A multi-modal approach is important
• The importance of literacy
• Effective teamwork is essential
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 30 Strategy 24: Quality of the physical environment: ‘Provide a physical environment that supports well-being and learning’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Arrange indoor physical space and equipment to facilitate learning
• Control temperature, humidity and ventilation
• Control lighting
• Provide optimal acoustics
• Set up classroom environments that are attractive, stimulating and safe
• Create outdoor spaces and equipment that support the inclusion of all learners
• The evidence
• Indoor physical space
• Air quality
• Lighting
• Acoustics
• Outdoor physical space
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 31 Strategy 25: Visual learning and communication: ‘Create visual representations of concepts, actions and words to support learning and expression’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Visual learning
• Planning and implementing visual learning and communication
• The evidence
• Visual learning
• Visual communication
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 32 Strategy 26: Early intervention: ‘Early support has long term benefits’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Principles to guide early intervention practices
• Practitioner-based early intervention practices
• Parent-based practices
• Universal early intervention programmes
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 33 Strategy 27: Transition from school to post-school environments1: ‘Education should prepare learners for the changing world of work and life as adults’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Raise awareness on the right to education and the right to employment
• Strengthen policies on transition for students with disabilities
• Strengthen personnel involved in transition
• Strengthen educational services for students with disabilities
• Strengthen cooperation among stakeholders
• Strengthen monitoring, evaluation and accountability
• Take account of the impact of disruptive technology
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 34 Strategy 28: Response to intervention: ‘Employ a gradation of evidence-based interventions to take account of the extent of individual needs’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• Response to intervention
• The Graduated Response Model
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Chapter 35 Strategy 29: Universal design for learning: ‘Ensure all learners have access to everything they need to learn’
• The strategy
• The underlying idea
• The practice
• The evidence
• Addressing risks
• Conclusion
• Further reading
• Notes
• Part III Conclusion
• Chapter 36 From research to practice
• There is a growing body of relevant, high-quality evidence of effective educational policies and practices applying to learners with additional learning needs
• Educators’ practices should be based on both high use of evidence-based pedagogy and high QUALITY social relationships
• The role of evidence in determining educational policies and practices depends on the relationship between the supply of and demand for it
• There is a gap between educational research and policies and practice
• The careful and systematic implementation of evidence-based policies and practices could improve educational outcomes
• Increasing access to evidence
• Systematically implementing evidence-based strategies
• 1. Plan and execute implementation in stages, treating it as a process, not an event
• 2. Create a leadership environment and school climate that is conducive to good implementation
• 3. Define the problem you want to solve and identify appropriate programmes or practices to implement
• 4. Create a clear implementation plan, judge the readiness of the school to deliver that plan, then prepare staff and resources
• 5. Support staff, monitor progress, solve problems, and adapt strategies as the approach is used for the first time
• 6. Plan for sustaining and scaling an intervention from the outset and continually acknowledge and nurture its use.
• Leadership is the key to successful implementation
• Personnel must be prepared to implement evidence-based policies and practices
• The threat of truth decay
• Notes
• Index