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• Contents
• Preface
• 1. Introduction
• 1.1 THE ATMOSPHERIC CONTINUUM
• 1.2 PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• 1.3 SCALE ANALYSIS
• 1.4 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES
• 1.4.1 Pressure Gradient Force
• 1.4.2 Gravitational Force
• 1.4.3 Viscous Force
• 1.5 NONINERTIALREFERENCEFRAMESANDAPPARENTŽ FORCES
• 1.5.1 Centripetal Acceleration and Centrifugal Force
• 1.5.2 Gravity Force
• 1.5.3 The Coriolis Force and the Curvature Effect
• 1.5.4 Constant Angular Momentum Oscillations
• 1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE STATIC ATMOSPHERE
• 1.6.1 The Hydrostatic Equation
• 1.6.2 Pressure as a Vertical Coordinate
• 1.6.3 A Generalized Vertical Coordinate
• PROBLEMS 1
• MATLAB EXERCISES 1
• Suggested References 1
• 2. Basic Conservation Laws
• 2.1 TOTAL DIFFERENTIATION
• 2.1.1 Total Differentiation of a Vector in a Rotating System
• 2.2 THE VECTORIAL FORM OF THE MOMENTUM EQUATION IN ROTATING COORDINATES
• 2.3 COMPONENT EQUATIONS IN SPHERICAL COORDINATES
• 2.4 SCALE ANALYSIS OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION
• 2.4.1 Geostrophic Approximation and GeostrophicWind
• 2.4.2 Approximate Prognostic Equations; the Rossby Number
• 2.4.3 The Hydrostatic Approximation
• 2.5 THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
• 2.5.1 An Eulerian Derivation
• 2.5.2 A Lagrangian Derivation
• 2.5.3 Scale Analysis of the Continuity Equation
• 2.6 THE THERMODYNAMIC ENERGY EQUATION
• 2.7 THERMODYNAMICS OF THE DRY ATMOSPHERE
• 2.7.1 Potential Temperature
• 2.7.2 The Adiabatic Lapse Rate
• 2.7.3 Static Stability
• 2.7.4 Scale Analysis of the Thermodynamic Energy Equation
• PROBLEMS 2
• MATLAB EXERCISES 2
• Suggested References 2
• 3. Elementary Applications of the Basic Equations
• 3.1 BASIC EQUATIONS IN ISOBARIC COORDINATES
• 3.1.1 The Horizontal Momentum Equation
• 3.1.2 The Continuity Equation
• 3.1.3 The Thermodynamic Energy Equation
• 3.2 BALANCED FLOW
• 3.2.1 Natural Coordinates
• 3.2.2 Geostrophic Flow
• 3.2.3 Inertial Flow
• 3.2.4 Cyclostrophic Flow
• 3.2.5 The GradientWind Approximation
• 3.3 TRAJECTORIES AND STREAMLINES
• 3.4 THE THERMAL WIND
• 3.4.1 Barotropic and Baroclinic Atmospheres
• 3.5 VERTICAL MOTION
• 3.5.1 The Kinematic Method
• 3.5.2 The Adiabatic Method
• 3.6 SURFACE PRESSURE TENDENCY
• PROBLEMS 3
• MATLAB EXERCISES 3
• 4. Circulation and Vorticity
• 4.1 THE CIRCULATION THEOREM
• 4.2 VORTICITY
• 4.2.1 Vorticity in Natural Coordinates
• 4.3 POTENTIAL VORTICITY
• 4.4 THE VORTICITY EQUATION
• 4.4.1 Cartesian Coordinate Form
• 4.4.2 The Vorticity Equation in Isobaric Coordinates
• 4.4.3 Scale Analysis of the Vorticity Equation
• 4.5 VORTICITY IN BAROTROPIC FLUIDS
• 4.5.1 The Barotropic (Rossby) Potential Vorticity Equation
• 4.5.2 The Barotropic Vorticity Equation
• 4.6 THEBAROCLINIC (ERTEL) POTENTIALVORTICITYEQUATION
• 4.6.1 Equations of Motion in Isentropic Coordinates
• 4.6.2 The Potential Vorticity Equation
• 4.6.3 Integral Constraints on Isentropic Vorticity
• PROBLEMS 4
• MATLAB EXERCISES 4
• Suggested References 4
• 5. The Planetary Boundary Layer
• 5.1 ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE
• 5.1.1 The Boussinesq Approximation
• 5.1.2 Reynolds Averaging
• 5.2 TURBULENT KINETIC ENERGY
• 5.3 PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER MOMENTUM EQUATIONS
• 5.3.1 Well-Mixed Boundary Layer
• 5.3.2 The Flux–Gradient Theory
• 5.3.3 The Mixing Length Hypothesis
• 5.3.4 The Ekman Layer
• 5.3.5 The Surface Layer
• 5.3.6 The Modified Ekman Layer
• 5.4 SECONDARY CIRCULATIONS AND SPIN DOWN
• PROBLEMS 5
• MATLAB EXERCISES 5
• Suggested References 5
• 6. Synoptic-Scale Motions I: Quasi-Geostrophic Analysis
• 6.1 THE OBSERVED STRUCTURE OF EXTRATROPICAL CIRCULATIONS
• 6.2 THE QUASI-GEOSTROPHIC APPROXIMATION
• 6.2.1 Scale Analysis in Isobaric Coordinates
• 6.2.2 The Quasi-Geostrophic Vorticity Equation
• 6.3 QUASI-GEOSTROPHIC PREDICTION
• 6.3.1 Geopotential Tendency
• 6.3.2 The Quasi-Geostrophic Potential Vorticity Equation
• 6.3.3 Potential Vorticity Inversion
• 6.3.4 Vertical Coupling Through Potential Vorticity
• 6.4 DIAGNOSIS OF THE VERTICAL MOTION
• 6.4.1 The Traditional Omega Equation
• 6.4.2 The Q Vector
• 6.4.3 The Ageostrophic Circulation
• 6.5 IDEALIZED MODEL OF A BAROCLINIC DISTURBANCE
• PROBLEMS 6
• MATLAB EXERCISES 6
• Suggested References 6
• 7. Atmospheric Oscillations: Linear Perturbation Theory
• 7.1 THE PERTURBATION METHOD
• 7.2 PROPERTIES OFWAVES
• 7.2.1 Fourier Series
• 7.2.2 Dispersion and Group Velocity
• 7.3 SIMPLEWAVE TYPES
• 7.3.1 Acoustic or SoundWaves
• 7.3.2 ShallowWater GravityWaves
• 7.4 INTERNAL GRAVITY (BUOYANCY) WAVES
• 7.4.1 Pure Internal GravityWaves
• 7.4.2 TopographicWaves
• 7.5 GRAVITYWAVES MODIFIED BY ROTATION
• 7.5.1 Pure Inertial Oscillations
• 7.5.2 Inertia–GravityWaves
• 7.6 ADJUSTMENT TO GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE
• 7.7 ROSSBYWAVES
• 7.7.1 Free Barotropic RossbyWaves
• 7.7.2 Forced Topographic RossbyWaves
• PROBLEMS 7
• MATLAB EXERCISES 7
• Suggested References 7
• 8. Synoptic-Scale Motions II: Baroclinic Instability
• 8.1 HYDRODYNAMIC INSTABILITY
• 8.2 NORMAL MODE BAROCLINIC INSTABILITY: A TWO-LAYER MODEL
• 8.2.1 Linear Perturbation Analysis
• 8.2.2 Vertical Motion in BaroclinicWaves
• 8.3 THE ENERGETICS OF BAROCLINICWAVES
• 8.3.1 Available Potential Energy
• 8.3.2 Energy Equations for the Two-Layer Model
• 8.4 BAROCLINIC INSTABILITY OFA CONTINUOUSLY STRATIFIED ATMOSPHERE
• 8.4.1 Log-Pressure Coordinates
• 8.4.2 Baroclinic Instability: The Rayleigh Theorem
• 8.4.3 The Eady Stability Problem
• 8.5 GROWTHAND PROPAGATION OF NEUTRAL MODES
• 8.5.1 Transient Growth of NeutralWaves
• 8.5.2 Downstream Development
• PROBLEMS 8
• MATLAB EXERCISES 8
• Suggested References 8
• 9. Mesoscale Circulations
• 9.1 ENERGY SOURCES FOR MESOSCALE CIRCULATIONS
• 9.2 FRONTS AND FRONTOGENESIS
• 9.2.1 The Kinematics of Frontogenesis
• 9.2.2 Semigeostrophic Theory
• 9.2.3 Cross-Frontal Circulation
• 9.3 SYMMETRIC BAROCLINIC INSTABILITY
• 9.4 MOUNTAINWAVES
• 9.4.1 Flow over Isolated Ridges
• 9.4.2 LeeWaves
• 9.4.3 DownslopeWindstorms
• 9.5 CUMULUS CONVECTION
• 9.5.1 Equivalent Potential Temperature
• 9.5.2 The Pseudoadiabatic Lapse Rate
• 9.5.3 Conditional Instability
• 9.5.4 Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE)
• 9.5.5 Entrainment
• 9.6 CONVECTIVE STORMS
• 9.6.1 Development of Rotation in Supercell Thunderstorms
• 9.6.2 The Right-Moving Storm
• 9.7 HURRICANES
• 9.7.1 Dynamics of Mature Hurricanes
• 9.7.2 Hurricane Development
• PROBLEMS 9
• MATLAB EXERCISES 9
• Suggested References 9
• 10. The General Circulation
• 10.1 THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM
• 10.2 THE ZONALLY AVERAGED CIRCULATION
• 10.2.1 The Conventional Eulerian Mean
• 10.2.2 The Transformed Eulerian Mean (TEM)
• 10.2.3 The Zonal-Mean Potential Vorticity Equation
• 10.3 THE ANGULAR MOMENTUM BUDGET
• 10.3.1 Sigma Coordinates
• 10.3.2 The Zonal-Mean Angular Momentum
• 10.4 THE LORENZ ENERGY CYCLE
• 10.5 LONGITUDINALLY DEPENDENT TIME-AVERAGED FLOW
• 10.5.1 Stationary RossbyWaves
• 10.5.2 Jetstream and Storm Tracks
• 10.6 LOW-FREQUENCY VARIABILITY
• 10.6.1 Climate Regimes
• 10.6.2 Annular Modes
• 10.6.3 Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies
• 10.7 LABORATORYSIMULATIONOFTHEGENERALCIRCULATION
• 10.8 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF THE GENERAL CIRCULATION
• 10.8.1 The Development of AGCMs
• 10.8.2 Dynamical Formulation
• 10.8.3 Physical Processes and Parameterizations
• 10.8.4 The NCAR Climate System Model
• PROBLEMS 10
• MATLAB EXERCISES 10
• Suggested References 10
• 11. Tropical Dynamics
• 11.1 THE OBSERVED STRUCTURE OF LARGE-SCALE TROPICAL CIRCULATIONS
• 11.1.1 The Intertropical Convergence Zone
• 11.1.2 EquatorialWave Disturbances
• 11.1.3 AfricanWave Disturbances
• 11.1.4 Tropical Monsoons
• 11.1.5 TheWalker Circulation
• 11.1.6 El Ni ˜ no and the Southern Oscillation
• 11.1.7 Equatorial Intraseasonal Oscillation
• 11.2 SCALE ANALYSIS OF LARGE-SCALE TROPICAL MOTIONS
• 11.3 CONDENSATION HEATING
• 11.4 EQUATORIALWAVE THEORY
• 11.4.1 Equatorial Rossby and Rossby–Gravity Modes
• 11.4.2 Equatorial KelvinWaves
• 11.5 STEADY FORCED EQUATORIAL MOTIONS
• PROBLEMS 11
• MATLAB EXERCISES 11
• Suggested References 11
• 12. Middle Atmosphere Dynamics
• 12.1 STRUCTURE AND CIRCULATION OF THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE
• 12.2 THE ZONAL-MEAN CIRCULATION OF THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE
• 12.2.1 Lagrangian Motion of Air Parcels
• 12.2.2 The Transformed Eulerian Mean
• 12.2.3 Zonal-Mean Transport
• 12.3 VERTICALLY PROPAGATING PLANETARYWAVES
• 12.3.1 Linear RossbyWaves
• 12.3.2 RossbyWavebreaking
• 12.4 SUDDEN STRATOSPHERICWARMINGS
• 12.5 WAVES IN THE EQUATORIAL STRATOSPHERE
• 12.5.1 Vertically Propagating KelvinWaves
• 12.5.2 Vertically Propagating Rossby–GravityWaves
• 12.5.3 Observed EquatorialWaves
• 12.6 THE QUASI-BIENNIAL OSCILLATION
• 12.7 TRACE CONSTITUENT TRANSPORT
• 12.7.1 Dynamical Tracers
• 12.7.2 Chemical Tracers
• 12.7.3 Transport in the Stratosphere
• PROBLEMS 12
• MATLAB EXERCISES 12
• Suggested References 12
• 13. Numerical Modeling and Prediction
• 13.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
• 13.2 FILTERING METEOROLOGICAL NOISE
• 13.3 NUMERICAL APPROXIMATION OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION
• 13.3.1 Finite Differences
• 13.3.2 Centered Differences: Explicit Time Differencing
• 13.3.3 Computational Stability
• 13.3.4 Implicit Time Differencing
• 13.3.5 The Semi-Lagrangian Integration Method
• 13.3.6 Truncation Error
• 13.4 THE BAROTROPIC VORTICITY EQUATION IN FINITE DIFFERENCES
• 13.5 THE SPECTRAL METHOD
• 13.5.1 The Barotropic Vorticity Equation in Spherical Coordinates
• 13.5.2 Rossby–HaurwitzWaves
• 13.5.3 The Spectral Transform Method
• 13.6 PRIMITIVE EQUATION MODELS
• 13.6.1 The Ecmwf Grid Point Model
• 13.6.2 Spectral Models
• 13.6.3 Physical Parameterizations
• 13.7 DATA ASSIMILATION
• 13.7.1 The Initialization Problem
• 13.7.2 Nonlinear Normal Mode Initialization
• 13.7.3 Four-Dimensional Data Assimilation
• 13.8 PREDICTABILITY AND ENSEMBLE PREDICTION SYSTEMS
• PROBLEMS 13
• MATLAB EXERCISES 13
• Suggested References 13
• Appendix A: Useful Constants and Parameters
• Appendix B: List of Symbols
• Appendix C: Vector Analysis
• C.1 VECTOR IDENTITIES
• C.2 INTEGRAL THEOREMS
• C.3 VECTOR OPERATIONS IN VARIOUS COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• Appendix D: Moisture Variables
• D.1 EQUIVALENT POTENTIAL TEMPERATURE
• D.2 PSEUDOADIABATIC LAPSE RATE
• Appendix E: Standard Atmosphere Data
• Appendix F: Symmetric Baroclinic Oscillations
• Bibliography
• Index