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• Contents
• Preface to the ninth edition
• Acknowledgments
• LEARNED SOCIETIES
• EDITORS
• PUBLISHERS
• ORGANIZATIONS
• INDIVIDUALS
• CHAPTER ONE Introduction and history of meteorology and climatology
• A THE ATMOSPHERE
• B SOLAR ENERGY
• C GLOBAL CIRCULATION
• D CLIMATOLOGY
• E MID-LATITUDE DISTURBANCES
• F THE POLAR REGIONS
• G TROPICAL WEATHER
• H PALEOCLIMATES
• I THE GLOBAL CLIMATE SYSTEM
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• Books
• Journal articles
• CHAPTER TWO Atmospheric composition, mass and structure
• A COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
• 1 Primary gases
• 2 Greenhouse gases
• 3 Reactive gas species
• 4 Aerosols
• 5 Variations with height
• 6 Variations with latitude and season
• 7 Variations with time
• B MASS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
• 1 Total pressure
• 2 Vapor pressure
• C THE LAYERING OF THE ATMOSPHERE
• 1 Troposphere
• 2 Stratosphere
• 3 Mesosphere
• 4 Thermosphere
• 5 Exosphere and magnetosphere
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• Books
• Journal articles
• CHAPTER THREE Solar radiation and the global energy budget
• A SOLAR RADIATION
• 1 Solar output
• 2 Distance from the sun
• 3 Altitude of the sun
• 4 Length of day
• B SURFACE RECEIPT OF SOLAR RADIATION AND ITS EFFECTS
• 1 Energy transfer within the earth–atmosphere system
• 2 Effect of the atmosphere
• 3 Effect of cloud cover
• 4 Effect of latitude
• 5 Effect of land and sea
• 6 Effect of elevation and aspect
• 7 Variation of free air temperature with height
• C TERRESTRIAL INFRARED RADIATION AND THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
• D HEAT BUDGET OF THE EARTH
• E ATMOSPHERIC ENERGY AND HORIZONTAL HEAT TRANSPORT
• 1 The horizontal transport of heat
• 2 Spatial pattern of the heat budget components
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• Books
• Journal articles
• CHAPTER FOUR Atmospheric moisture budget
• A THE GLOBAL HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
• B HUMIDITY
• 1 Moisture content
• 2 Moisture transport
• C EVAPORATION
• D CONDENSATION
• E PRECIPITATION CHARACTERISTICS AND MEASUREMENT
• 1 Forms of precipitation
• 2 Precipitation characteristics
• Rainfall intensity
• Areal extent of a rainstorm
• Frequency of rainstorms
• 3 The world pattern of precipitation
• 4 Regional variations in the altitudinal maximum of precipitation
• 5 Drought
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• Books
• Journal articles
• CHAPTER FIVE Atmospheric instability, cloud formation and precipitation processes
• A ADIABATIC TEMPERATURE CHANGES
• B CONDENSATION LEVEL
• C AIR STABILITY AND INSTABILITY
• D CLOUD FORMATION
• 1 Condensation nuclei
• 2 Cloud types
• 3 Global cloud cover
• E FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION
• 1 Bergeron–Findeisen theory
• 2 Coalescence theories
• 3 Solid precipitation
• F PRECIPITATION TYPES
• 1 ’Convective type’ precipitation
• 2 ‘Cyclonic type’ precipitation
• 3 Orographic precipitation
• G THUNDERSTORMS
• 1 Development
• 2 Cloud electrification and lightning
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• Books
• Articles
• CHAPTER SIX Atmospheric motion: principles
• A LAWS OF HORIZONTAL MOTION
• 1 The pressure-gradient force
• 2 The earth’s rotational deflective (Coriolis) force
• 3 The geostrophic wind
• 4 The centripetal acceleration
• 5 Frictional forces and the planetary boundary layer
• B DIVERGENCE, VERTICAL MOTION AND VORTICITY
• 1 Divergence
• 2 Vertical motion
• 3 Vorticity
• C LOCAL WINDS
• 1 Mountain and valley winds
• 2 Land and sea breezes
• 3 Winds due to topographic barriers
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• Books
• Articles
• CHAPTER SEVEN Planetary-scale motions in the atmosphere and ocean
• A VARIATION OF PRESSURE AND WIND VELOCITY WITH HEIGHT
• 1 The vertical variation of pressure systems
• 2 Mean upper-air patterns
• 3 Upper wind conditions
• 4 Surface pressure conditions
• B THE GLOBAL WIND BELTS
• 1 The Trade Winds
• 2 The equatorial westerlies
• 3 The mid-latitude (Ferrel) westerlies
• 4 The polar easterlies
• C THE GENERAL CIRCULATION
• 1 Circulations in the vertical and horizontal planes
• 2 Variations in the circulation of the Northern Hemisphere
• Zonal index variations
• North Atlantic Oscillation
• The PDO, NPO and PNA
• D OCEAN STRUCTURE AND CIRCULATION
• 1 Above the thermocline
• Vertical
• Horizontal
• General
• Macroscale
• Mesoscale
• 2 Deep ocean water interactions
• Upwelling
• Deep ocean circulation
• 3 The oceans and atmospheric regulation
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• Books
• Articles
• CHAPTER EIGHT Numerical models of the general circulation, climate and weather prediction
• A FUNDAMENTALS OF THE GCM
• B MODEL SIMULATIONS
• 1 GCMs
• 2 Simpler models
• 3 Regional models
• C DATA SOURCES FOR FORECASTING
• D NUMERICAL WEATHER PREDICTION
• 1 Short- and medium-range forecasting
• 2 Nowcasting
• 3 Long-range outlooks
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• Books
• Websites
• Articles
• CHAPTER NINE Mid-latitude synoptic and mesoscale systems
• A THE AIR-MASS CONCEPT
• B NATURE OF THE SOURCE AREA
• 1 Cold air masses
• 2 Warm air masses
• C AIR-MASS MODIFICATION
• 1 Mechanisms of modification
• Thermodynamic changes
• Dynamic changes
• 2 The results of modification: secondary air masses
• Cold air
• Warm air
• 3 The age of the air mass
• D FRONTOGENESIS
• 1 Frontal waves
• 2 The frontal-wave depression
• E FRONTAL CHARACTERISTICS
• 1 The warm front
• 2 The cold front
• 3 The occlusion
• 4 Frontal-wave families
• F ZONES OF WAVE DEVELOPMENT AND FRONTOGENESIS
• G SURFACE–UPPER-AIR RELATIONSHIPS AND THE FORMATION OF FRONTAL CYCLONES
• H NON-FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS
• 1 The lee cyclone
• 2 The thermal low
• 3 Polar lows
• 4 The cold low
• I MESOSCALE CONVECTIVE SYSTEMS
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• Books
• Articles
• CHAPTER TEN Weather and climate in middle and high latitudes
• A EUROPE
• 1 Pressure and wind conditions
• 2 Oceanicity and continentality
• 3 British airflow patterns and their climatic characteristics
• 4 Singularities and natural seasons
• 5 Synoptic anomalies
• 6 Topographic effects
• B NORTH AMERICA
• 1 Pressure systems
• 2 The temperate west coast and cordillera
• 3 Interior and eastern North America
• Continental and oceanic influences
• Warm and cold spells
• Precipitation and the moisture balance
• C THE SUBTROPICAL MARGINS
• 1 The semi-arid southwestern United States
• 2 The southeastern United States
• 3 The Mediterranean
• 4 North Africa
• 5 Australasia
• D HIGH LATITUDES
• 1 The southern westerlies
• 2 The sub-Arctic
• 3 The polar regions
• The Arctic
• Antarctica
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• Books
• Articles
• CHAPTER ELEVEN Tropical weather and climate
• A THE INTERTROPICAL CONVERGENCE
• B TROPICAL DISTURBANCES
• 1 Wave disturbances
• 2 Cyclones
• Hurricanes and typhoons
• Other tropical depressions
• 3 Tropical cloud clusters
• C THE SOUTH ASIAN MONSOON
• 1 Winter
• 2 Spring
• 3 Early summer
• 4 Summer
• 5 Autumn
• D EAST ASIAN AND AUSTRALIAN SUMMER MONSOONS
• E CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN AFRICA
• 1 The African monsoon
• 2 Southern Africa
• F AMAZONIA
• G EL NIÑO–SOUTHERN OSCILLATION (ENSO) EVENTS
• 1 The Pacific Ocean
• 2 Teleconnections
• H OTHER SOURCES OF CLIMATIC VARIATIONS IN THE TROPICS
• 1 Cool ocean currents
• 2 Topographic effects
• 3 Diurnal variations
• I FORECASTING TROPICAL WEATHER
• 1 Short- and extended-range forecasts
• 2 Long-range forecasts
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• Books
• Articles
• CHAPTER TWELVE Boundary layer climates
• A SURFACE ENERGY BUDGETS
• B NON-VEGETATED NATURAL SURFACES
• 1 Rock and sand
• 2 Water
• 3 Snow and ice
• C VEGETATED SURFACES
• 1 Short green crops
• 2 Forests
• Modification of energy transfers
• Modification of airflow
• Modification of the humidity environment
• Modification of the thermal environment
• D URBAN SURFACES
• 1 Modification of atmospheric composition
• Aerosols
• Gases
• Pollution distribution and impacts
• 2 Modification of the heat budget
• Atmospheric composition
• Urban surfaces
• Human heat production
• Heat islands
• 3 Modification of surface characteristics
• Airflow
• Moisture
• 4 Tropical urban climates
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• Books
• Articles
• CHAPTER THIRTEEN Climate change
• A GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
• B CLIMATE FORCING, FEEDBACK AND RESPONSE
• 1 Climate forcing
• 2 Climate feedbacks
• 3 Climate response
• 4 The importance of framework
• C THE CLIMATIC RECORD
• 1 The geological record
• 2 The last glacial cycle and post-glacial conditions
• 3 The past 1000 years
• D UNDERSTANDING RECENT CLIMATIC CHANGE
• 1 Circulation changes
• 2 Solar variability
• 3 Volcanic activity
• 4 Anthropogenic factors
• E PROJECTIONS OF TEMPERATURE CHANGE THROUGH THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
• 1 Applications of General Circulation Models
• 2 The IPCC simulations
• F PROJECTED CHANGE IN OTHER SYSTEM COMPONENTS
• 1 Hydrologic cycle and atmospheric circulation
• 2 Global sea-level
• 3 Snow and ice
• 4 Vegetation
• G POSTSCRIPT
• REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
• Books
• Articles
• APPENDIX 1 Climate classification
• A GENERIC CLASSIFICATIONS RELATED TO PLANT GROWTH OR VEGETATION
• Temperature criteria
• Aridity criteria
• B ENERGY AND MOISTURE BUDGET CLASSIFICATIONS
• C GENETIC CLASSIFICATIONS
• D CLASSIFICATIONS OF CLIMATIC COMFORT
• BIBLIOGRAPHY
• APPENDIX 2 Système International (SI) units
• APPENDIX 3 Synoptic weather maps
• APPENDIX 4 Data sources
• A DAILY WEATHER MAPS AND DATA
• B SATELLITE DATA
• C CLIMATIC DATA
• D SELECTED SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON THE WORLD WIDE WEB
• BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Notes
• General Bibliography
• Index