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• Brief Contents
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Detailed Contents
• 1 Biology and the Tree of Life
• 1.1 What Does It Mean to Say That Something Is Alive?
• 1.2 Life Is Cellular
• All Organisms Are Made of Cells
• Where Do Cells Come From?
• Life Replicates Through Cell Division
• 1.3 Life Evolves
• What Is Evolution?
• What Is Natural Selection?
• 1.4 Life Processes Information
• The Central Dogma
• Life Requires Energy
• 1.5 The Tree of Life
• Using Molecules to Understand the Tree of Life
• How Should We Name Branches on the Tree of Life?
• 1.6 Doing Biology
• The Nature of Science
• Why Do Giraffes Have Long Necks? an Introduction to Hypothesis Testing
• How Do Ants Navigate? An Introduction to Experimental Design
• Chapter Review
• Big Picture Doing Biology
• BioSkills
• B.1 Using the Metric System and Significant Figures
• Metric System Units and Conversions
• Significant Figures
• B.2 Reading and Making Graphs
• Getting Started
• Types of Graphs
• Getting Practice
• B.3 Interpreting Standard Error Bars and Using Statistical Tests
• Standard Error Bars
• Using Statistical Tests
• Interpreting P Values and Statistical Significance
• B.4 Working with Probabilities
• The Both-And Rule
• The Either-Or Rule
• B.5 Using Logarithms
• B.6 Separating and Visualizing Molecules
• Using Electrophoresis to Separate Molecules
• Using Thin Layer Chromatography to Separate Molecules
• Visualizing Molecules
• B.7 Separating Cell Components by Centrifugation
• B.8 Using Spectrophotometry
• B.9 Using Microscopy
• Light and Fluorescence Microscopy
• Electron Microscopy
• Studying Live Cells and Real-Time Processes
• Visualizing Cellular Structures in 3-D
• B.10 Using Molecular Biology Tools and Techniques
• Making and Using DNA Libraries
• Amplifying DNA Using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
• Dideoxy Sequencing
• Shotgun Sequencing
• DNA Microarray
• B.11 Using Cell Culture and Model Organisms as Tools
• Cell and Tissue Culture Methods
• Model Organisms
• B.12 Reading and Making Visual Models
• Tips for Interpreting Models
• Tips for Making your Own Models
• Concept Maps
• B.13 Reading and Making Phylogenetic Trees
• Anatomy of a Phylogenetic Tree
• How to Read a Phylogenetic Tree
• How to Draw a Phylogenetic Tree
• B.14 Reading Chemical Structures
• B.15 Translating Greek and Latin Roots in Biology
• B.16 Reading and Citing the Primary Literature
• What Is the Primary Literature?
• Getting Started
• Citing Sources
• Getting Practice
• B.17 Recognizing and Correcting Misconceptions
• B.18 Using Bloom’s Taxonomy for Study Success
• Categories of Human Cognition
• Six Study Steps to Success
• Unit 1 The Molecular Origin and Evolution of Life
• 2 Water and Carbon: The Chemical Basis of Life
• 2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks of Chemical Evolution
• Basic Atomic Structure
• How Does Covalent Bonding Hold Molecules Together?
• Ionic Bonding, Ions, and the Electron-sharing Continuum
• Some Simple Molecules Formed from C, H, N, and O
• The Geometry of Simple Molecules
• Representing Molecules
• 2.2 Properties of Water and the Early Oceans
• Why Is Water Such an Efficient Solvent?
• What Properties Are Correlated with Water’s Structure?
• The Role of Water in Acid–Base Chemical Reactions
• 2.3 Chemical Reactions, Energy, and Chemical Evolution
• How Do Chemical Reactions Happen?
• What Is Energy?
• What Makes a Chemical Reaction Spontaneous?
• 2.4 Model Systems for Investigating Chemical Evolution
• Early Origin-of-Life Experiments
• Recent Origin-of-Life Experiments
• 2.5 The Importance of Organic Molecules
• Linking Carbon Atoms Together
• Functional Groups
• Chapter Review
• 3 Protein Structure and Function
• 3.1 Amino Acids and Their Polymerization
• The Structure of Amino Acids
• The Nature of Side Chains
• How Do Amino Acids Link to Form Proteins?
• 3.2 What Do Proteins Look Like?
• Primary Structure
• Secondary Structure
• Tertiary Structure
• Quaternary Structure
• 3.3 Folding and Function
• Normal Folding Is Crucial to Function
• Protein Shape Is Flexible
• 3.4 Protein Functions Are as Diverse as Protein Structures
• Why Are Enzymes Good Catalysts?
• Did Life Arise from a Self-Replicating Enzyme?
• Chapter Review
• 4 Nucleic Acids and the RNA World
• 4.1 What Is a Nucleic Acid?
• Could Chemical Evolution Result in the Production of Nucleotides?
• How Do Nucleotides Polymerize to Form Nucleic Acids?
• 4.2 DNA Structure and Function
• What Is the Nature of DNA’s Secondary Structure?
• The Tertiary Structure of DNA
• Dna Functions as an Information-Containing Molecule
• The DNA Double Helix Is a Stable Structure
• 4.3 RNA Structure and Function
• Structurally, RNA Differs from DNA
• RNA’s Versatility
• RNA Can Function as a Catalytic Molecule
• 4.4 In Search of the First Life-Form
• How Biologists Study the RNA World
• The RNA World May Have Sparked the Evolution of Life
• Chapter Review
• 5 An Introduction to Carbohydrates
• 5.1 Sugars as Monomers
• What Distinguishes One Monosaccharide from Another?
• Can Monosaccharides Form by Chemical Evolution?
• 5.2 The Structure of Polysaccharides
• Starch: A Storage Polysaccharide in Plants
• Glycogen: A Highly Branched Storage Polysaccharide in Animals
• Cellulose: A Structural Polysaccharide in Plants
• Chitin: A Structural Polysaccharide in Fungi and Animals
• Peptidoglycan: A Structural Polysaccharide in Bacteria
• Polysaccharides and Chemical Evolution
• 5.3 What Do Carbohydrates Do?
• Carbohydrates Can Provide Structural Support
• The Role of Carbohydrates in Cell Identity
• Carbohydrates and Energy Storage
• Chapter Review
• 6 Lipids, Membranes, and the First Cells
• 6.1 Lipid Structure and Function
• How Does Bond Saturation Affect Hydrocarbon Structure?
• A Look at Three Types of Lipids Found in Cells
• How Membrane Lipids Interact with Water
• Were Lipids Present During Chemical Evolution?
• 6.2 Phospholipid Bilayers
• Artificial Membranes as an Experimental System
• Selective Permeability of Lipid Bilayers
• How Does Lipid Structure Affect Membrane Permeability?
• How Does Temperature Affect the Fluidity and Permeability of Membranes?
• 6.3 How Substances Move Across Lipid Bilayers: Diffusion and Osmosis
• Diffusion
• Osmosis
• Membranes and Chemical Evolution
• 6.4 Proteins Alter Membrane Structure and Function
• Development of the Fluid-mosaic Model
• Systems for Studying Membrane Proteins
• Channel Proteins Facilitate Diffusion
• Carrier Proteins Facilitate Diffusion
• Pumps Perform Active Transport
• Plasma Membranes Define the Intracellular Environment
• Chapter Review
• Big Picture The Chemistry of Life
• Unit 2 Cell Structure and Function
• 7 Inside the Cell
• 7.1 Bacterial and Archaeal Cell Structures and Their Functions
• A Revolutionary New View
• Prokaryotic Cell Structures: A Parts List
• 7.2 Eukaryotic Cell Structures and Their Functions
• The Benefits of Organelles
• Eukaryotic Cell Structures: A Parts List
• 7.3 Putting the Parts into a Whole
• Structure and Function at the Whole-Cell Level
• The Dynamic Cell
• 7.4 Cell Systems I: Nuclear Transport
• Structure and Function of the Nuclear Envelope
• How Do Molecules Enter the Nucleus?
• 7.5 Cell Systems II: The Endomembrane System Manufactures, Ships, and Recycles Cargo
• Studying the Pathway through the Endomembrane System
• Entering the Endomembrane System: The Signal Hypothesis
• Moving from the ER to the Golgi Apparatus
• What Happens Inside the Golgi Apparatus?
• How Do Proteins Reach Their Destinations?
• Recycling Material in the Lysosome
• 7.6 Cell Systems III: The Dynamic Cytoskeleton
• Actin Filaments
• Intermediate Filaments
• Microtubules
• Flagella and Cilia: Moving the Entire Cell
• Chapter Review
• 8 Energy and Enzymes: An Introduction to Metabolism
• 8.1 What Happens to Energy in Chemical Reactions?
• Chemical Reactions Involve Energy Transformations
• Temperature and Concentration Affect Reaction Rates
• 8.2 Nonspontaneous Reactions May Be Driven Using Chemical Energy
• Redox Reactions Transfer Energy via Electrons
• ATP Transfers Energy via Phosphate Groups
• 8.3 How Enzymes Work
• Enzymes Help Reactions Clear Two Hurdles
• What Limits the Rate of Catalysis?
• Do Enzymes Work Alone?
• 8.4 What Factors Affect Enzyme Function?
• Enzymes Are Optimized for Particular Environments
• Most Enzymes Are Regulated
• 8.5 Enzymes Can Work Together in Metabolic Pathways
• Metabolic Pathways Are Regulated
• Metabolic Pathways Evolve
• Chapter Review
• 9 Cellular Respiration and Fermentation
• 9.1 An Overview of Cellular Respiration
• What Happens When Glucose Is Oxidized?
• Cellular Respiration Plays a Central Role in Metabolism
• 9.2 Glycolysis: Oxidizing Glucose to Pyruvate
• Glycolysis Is a Sequence of 10 Reactions
• How Is Glycolysis Regulated?
• 9.3 Processing Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
• 9.4 The Citric Acid Cycle: Oxidizing Acetyl CoA to CO2
• How Is the Citric Acid Cycle Regulated?
• What Happens to the NADH and FADH2?
• 9.5 Electron Transport and Chemiosmosis: Building a Proton Gradient to Produce ATP
• The Electron Transport Chain
• The Discovery of ATP Synthase
• The Chemiosmosis Hypothesis
• Organisms Use a Diversity of Electron Acceptors
• 9.6 Fermentation
• Many Different Fermentation Pathways Exist
• Fermentation as an Alternative to Cellular Respiration
• Chapter Review
• 10 Photosynthesis
• 10.1 Photosynthesis Harnesses Sunlight to Make Carbohydrate
• Photosynthesis: Two Linked Sets of Reactions
• Photosynthesis Occurs in Chloroplasts
• 10.2 How Do Pigments Capture Light Energy?
• Photosynthetic Pigments Absorb Light
• When Light Is Absorbed, Electrons Enter an Excited State
• 10.3 The Discovery of Photosystems I and II
• How Does Photosystem II Work?
• How Does Photosystem I Work?
• The Z Scheme: Photosystems II and I Work Together
• 10.4 How Is Carbon Dioxide Reduced to Produce Sugars?
• The Calvin Cycle Fixes Carbon
• The Discovery of Rubisco
• How Is Photosynthesis Regulated?
• Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Pass Through Stomata
• Mechanisms for Increasing CO2 Concentration
• What Happens to the Sugar That Is Produced by Photosynthesis?
• Chapter Review
• Big Picture Energy for Life
• 11 Cell–Cell Interactions
• 11.1 The Cell Surface
• The Structure and Function of an Extracellular Layer
• The Extracellular Matrix in Animals
• The Cell Wall in Plants
• 11.2 How Do Adjacent Cells Connect and Communicate?
• Cell–Cell Attachments in Multicellular Eukaryotes
• Cells Communicate via Cell–Cell Gaps
• 11.3 How Do Distant Cells Communicate?
• Cell–Cell Signaling in Multicellular Organisms
• Signal Reception
• Signal Processing
• Signal Response
• Signal Deactivation
• Crosstalk: Synthesizing Input from Many Signals
• 11.4 Signaling between Unicellular Organisms
• Chapter Review
• 12 The Cell Cycle
• 12.1 How Do Cells Replicate?
• What Is a Chromosome?
• Cells Alternate between M Phase and Interphase
• The Discovery of S Phase
• The Discovery of the Gap Phases
• The Cell Cycle
• 12.2 What Happens during M Phase?
• Events in Mitosis
• How Do Chromosomes Move during Anaphase?
• Cytokinesis Results in Two Daughter Cells
• Bacterial Cell Replication
• 12.3 Control of the Cell Cycle
• The Discovery of Cell-Cycle Regulatory Molecules
• Cell-Cycle Checkpoints Can Arrest the Cell Cycle
• 12.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division
• Properties of Cancer Cells
• Cancer Involves Loss of Cell-Cycle Control
• Chapter Review
• Unit 3 Gene Structure and Expression
• 13 Meiosis
• 13.1 How Does Meiosis Occur?
• Chromosomes Come in Distinct Sizes and Shapes
• The Concept of Ploidy
• An Overview of Meiosis
• The Phases of Meiosis I
• The Phases of Meiosis II
• A Closer Look at Synapsis and Crossing over
• Mitosis versus Meiosis
• 13.2 Meiosis Promotes Genetic Variation
• Chromosomes and Heredity
• The Role of Independent Assortment
• The Role of Crossing over
• How Does Fertilization Affect Genetic Variation?
• 13.3 What Happens When Things Go Wrong in Meiosis?
• How Do Mistakes Occur?
• Why Do Mistakes Occur?
• 13.4 Why Does Meiosis Exist?
• The Paradox of Sex
• The Purifying Selection Hypothesis
• The Changing-Environment Hypothesis
• Chapter Review
• 14 Mendel and the Gene
• 14.1 Mendel’s Experimental System
• What Questions Was Mendel Trying to Answer?
• The Garden Pea Served as the First Model Organism in Genetics
• 14.2 Mendel’s Experiments with a Single Trait
• The Monohybrid Cross
• Particulate Inheritance
• 14.3 Mendel’s Experiments with Two Traits
• The Dihybrid Cross
• Using a Testcross to Confirm Predictions
• 14.4 The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
• Meiosis Explains Mendel’s Principles
• Testing the Chromosome Theory
• 14.5 Extending Mendel’s Rules
• Linkage: What Happens When Genes Are Located on the Same Chromosome?
• Quantitative Methods 14.1 Linkage and Genetic Mapping
• How Many Alleles Can a Gene Have?
• Are Alleles Always Dominant or Recessive?
• Does Each Gene Affect Just One Trait?
• Are All Traits Determined by a Gene?
• Can Mendel’s Principles Explain Traits That Don’t Fall into Distinct Categories?
• 14.6 Applying Mendel’s Rules to Human Inheritance
• Identifying Alleles as Recessive or Dominant
• Identifying Traits as Autosomal or Sex-Linked
• Chapter Review
• 15 DNA and the Gene: Synthesis and Repair
• 15.1 What Are Genes Made Of?
• The Hershey–Chase Experiment
• The Secondary Structure of DNA
• 15.2 Testing Early Hypotheses about DNA Synthesis
• Three Alternative Hypotheses
• The Meselson–Stahl Experiment
• 15.3 A Model for DNA Synthesis
• Where Does Replication Start?
• How Is the Helix Opened and Stabilized?
• How Is the Leading Strand Synthesized?
• How Is the Lagging Strand Synthesized?
• 15.4 Replicating the Ends of Linear Chromosomes
• The End Replication Problem
• Telomerase Solves the End Replication Problem
• Effect of Telomere Length on Cell Division
• 15.5 Repairing Mistakes and DNA Damage
• Correcting Mistakes in DNA Synthesis
• Repairing Damaged DNA
• Xeroderma Pigmentosum: A Case Study
• Chapter Review
• 16 How Genes Work
• 16.1 What Do Genes Do?
• The One-Gene, One-Enzyme Hypothesis
• An Experimental Test of the Hypothesis
• 16.2 The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
• The Genetic Code Hypothesis
• RNA as the Intermediary between Genes and Proteins
• Dissecting the Central Dogma
• 16.3 The Genetic Code
• How Long Is a “Word” in the Genetic Code?
• How Did Researchers Crack the Code?
• 16.4 What Are the Types and Consequences of Mutation?
• Point Mutations
• Chromosome Mutations
• Chapter Review
• 17 Transcription, RNA Processing, and Translation
• 17.1 An Overview of Transcription
• Initiation: How Does Transcription Begin in Bacteria?
• Elongation and Termination
• Transcription in Eukaryotes
• 17.2 RNA Processing in Eukaryotes
• The Startling Discovery of Split Eukaryotic Genes
• Rna Splicing
• Adding Caps and Tails to Transcripts
• 17.3 An Introduction to Translation
• Ribosomes Are the Site of Protein Synthesis
• Translation in Bacteria and Eukaryotes
• How Does an mRNA Triplet Specify an Amino Acid?
• 17.4 The Structure and Function of Transfer RNA
• What Do tRNAs Look Like?
• How Are Amino Acids Attached to tRNAs?
• How Many tRNAs Are There?
• 17.5 The Structure of Ribosomes and Their Function in Translation
• Initiating Translation
• Elongation: Extending the Polypeptide
• Terminating Translation
• Post-Translational Modifications
• Chapter Review
• 18 Control of Gene Expression in Bacteria
• 18.1 An Overview of Gene Regulation and Information Flow
• Mechanisms of Regulation
• Metabolizing Lactose—A Model System
• 18.2 Identifying Regulated Genes
• 18.3 Negative Control of Transcription
• The Operon Model
• How Does Glucose Regulate the lac Operon?
• Why Has the lac Operon Model Been So Important?
• 18.4 Positive Control of Transcription
• 18.5 Global Gene Regulation
• Chapter Review
• 19 Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes
• 19.1 Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes—An Overview
• 19.2 Chromatin Remodeling
• What Is Chromatin’s Basic Structure?
• Evidence That Chromatin Structure Is Altered in Active Genes
• How Is Chromatin Altered?
• Chromatin Modifications Can Be Inherited
• 19.3 Initiating Transcription: Regulatory Sequences and Proteins
• Promoter-Proximal Elements Are Regulatory Sequences Near the Core Promoter
• Enhancers Are Regulatory Sequences Far from the Core Promoter
• The Role of Transcription Factors in Differential Gene Expression
• How Do Transcription Factors Recognize Specific Dna Sequences?
• A Model for Transcription Initiation
• 19.4 Post-Transcriptional Control
• Alternative Splicing of Primary Transcripts
• How Is Translation Controlled?
• Post-Translational Control
• 19.5 How Does Gene Expression Compare in Bacteria and Eukaryotes?
• 19.6 Linking Cancer to Defects in Gene Regulation
• The Genetic Basis of Uncontrolled Cell Growth
• The p53 Tumor Suppressor: A Case Study
• Chapter Review
• Big Picture Genetic Information
• 20 The Molecular Revolution: Biotechnology and Beyond
• 20.1 Recombinant DNA Technology
• Using Plasmids in Cloning
• Using Restriction Endonucleases and DNA Ligase to Cut and Paste DNA
• Transformation: Introducing Recombinant Plasmids into Bacterial Cells
• Using Reverse Transcriptase to Produce cDNAs
• Biotechnology in Agriculture
• 20.2 The Polymerase Chain Reaction
• Requirements of PCR
• DNA Fingerprinting
• A New Branch of the Human Family Tree
• 20.3 DNA Sequencing
• Whole-Genome Sequencing
• Bioinformatics
• Which Genomes Are Being Sequenced, and Why?
• Which Sequences Are Genes?
• 20.4 Insights from Genome Analysis
• The Natural History of Prokaryotic Genomes
• The Natural History of Eukaryotic Genomes
• Insights from the Human Genome Project
• 20.5 Finding and Engineering Genes: the Huntington Disease Story
• How Was the Huntington Disease Gene Found?
• How Are Human Genes Found Today?
• What Are the Benefits of Finding a Disease Gene?
• Can Gene Therapy Provide a Cure?
• 20.6 Functional Genomics, Proteomics, and Systems Biology
• What Is Functional Genomics?
• What Is Proteomics?
• What Is Systems Biology?
• Chapter Review
• 21 Genes, Development, and Evolution
• 21.1 Shared Developmental Processes
• Cell Division
• Cell–Cell Interactions
• Cell Differentiation
• Cell Movement and Changes in Shape
• Programmed Cell Death
• 21.2 Genetic Equivalence and Differential Gene Expression in Development
• Evidence that Differentiated Plant Cells Are Genetically Equivalent
• Evidence that Differentiated Animal Cells Are Genetically Equivalent
• How Does Differential Gene Expression Occur?
• 21.3 Regulatory Cascades Establish the Body Plan
• Morphogens Set Up the Body Axes
• Regulatory Genes Provide Increasingly Specific Positional Information
• Regulatory Genes and Signaling Molecules Are Evolutionarily Conserved
• One Regulator Can Be Used Many Different Ways
• 21.4 Cells Are Determined Before They Differentiate
• Commitment and Determination
• Master Regulators of Differentiation and Development
• Stem Cell Therapy
• 21.5 Changes in Developmental Gene Expression Drive Evolutionary Change
• Chapter Review
• Unit 4 Evolutionary Patterns and Processes
• 22 Evolution by Natural Selection
• 22.1 The Rise of Evolutionary Thought
• Plato and Typological Thinking
• Aristotle and the Scale of Nature
• Lamarck and the Idea of Evolution as Change through Time
• Darwin and Wallace and Evolution by Natural Selection
• 22.2 The Pattern of Evolution: Have Species Changed, and Are They Related?
• Evidence for Change through Time
• Evidence of Descent from a Common Ancestor
• Evolution’s “Internal Consistency”— The Importance of Independent Data Sets
• Darwin’s Four Postulates
• 22.3 The Process of Evolution: How Does Natural Selection Work?
• Darwin’s Inspiration
• Darwin’s Four Postulates
• The Biological Definitions of Fitness, Adaptation, and Selection
• 22.4 Evolution in Action: Recent Research on Natural Selection
• Case Study 1: How Did Mycobacterium tuberculosis Become Resistant to Antibiotics?
• Case Study 2: Why Do Beak Sizes and Shapes Vary in Galápagos Finches?
• 22.5 Debunking Common Myths about Natural Selection and Adaptation
• Natural Selection Does Not Change Individuals
• Natural Selection Is Not Goal Directed
• Natural Selection Does Not Lead to Perfection
• Chapter Review
• 23 Evolutionary Processes
• 23.1 Analyzing Change in Allele Frequencies: the Hardy–Weinberg Principle
• The Gene Pool Concept
• Quantitative Methods 23.1 Deriving the Hardy–Weinberg Principle
• The Hardy–Weinberg Principle Makes Important Assumptions
• How Do Biologists Apply the Hardy–Weinberg Principle to Real Populations?
• 23.2 Nonrandom Mating
• How Does Inbreeding Affect Allele Frequencies and Genotype Frequencies?
• How Does Inbreeding Influence Evolution?
• 23.3 Natural Selection
• How Does Selection Affect Genetic Variation?
• Sexual Selection
• 23.4 Genetic Drift
• Simulation Studies of Genetic Drift
• Experimental Studies of Genetic Drift
• What Causes Genetic Drift in Natural Populations?
• 23.5 Gene Flow
• Measuring Gene Flow Between Populations
• Gene Flow Is Random with Respect to Fitness
• 23.6 Mutation
• Mutation as an Evolutionary Process
• Experimental Studies of Mutation
• Studies of Mutation in Natural Populations
• Take-Home Messages
• Chapter Review
• 24 Speciation
• 24.1 How are Species Defined and Identified?
• The Biological Species Concept
• The Morphospecies Concept
• The Phylogenetic Species Concept
• Species Definitions in Action: The Case of the Dusky Seaside Sparrow
• 24.2 Isolation and Divergence in Allopatry
• Allopatric Speciation by Dispersal
• Allopatric Speciation by Vicariance
• 24.3 Isolation and Divergence in Sympatry
• Sympatric Speciation by Disruptive Selection
• Sympatric Speciation by Polyploidization
• 24.4 What Happens When Isolated Populations Come into Contact?
• Reinforcement
• Hybrid Zones
• New Species through Hybridization
• Chapter Review
• 25 Phylogenies and the History of Life
• 25.1 Tools for Studying History: Phylogenetic Trees
• How Do Biologists Estimate Phylogenies?
• How Can Biologists Distinguish Homology from Homoplasy?
• Whale Evolution: A Case Study
• 25.2 Tools for Studying History: the Fossil Record
• How Do Fossils Form?
• Limitations of the Fossil Record
• Life’s Time Line
• 25.3 Adaptive Radiation
• Why Do Adaptive Radiations Occur?
• The Cambrian Explosion
• 25.4 Mass Extinction
• How Do Mass Extinctions Differ from Background Extinctions?
• The End-Permian Extinction
• The End-Cretaceous Extinction
• The Sixth Mass Extinction?
• Chapter Review
• Big Picture Evolution
• Unit 5 The Diversification of Life
• 26 Bacteria and Archaea
• 26.1 Why Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea?
• Biological Impact
• Some Prokaryotes Thrive in Extreme Environments
• Medical Importance
• Role in Bioremediation
• 26.2 How Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea?
• Using Enrichment Cultures
• Using Metagenomics
• Investigating the Human Microbiome
• Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies
• 26.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Bacteria and Archaea?
• Genetic Variation through Gene Transfer
• Morphological Diversity
• Metabolic Diversity
• Ecological Diversity and Global Impacts
• 26.4 Key Lineages of Bacteria and Archaea
• Bacteria
• Archaea
• Chapter Review
• 27 Protists
• 27.1 Why Do Biologists Study Protists?
• Impacts on Human Health and Welfare
• Ecological Importance of Protists
• 27.2 How Do Biologists Study Protists?
• Microscopy: Studying Cell Structure
• Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies
• Discovering New Lineages Via Direct Sequencing
• 27.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Protists?
• What Morphological Innovations Evolved in Protists?
• How Do Protists Obtain Food?
• How Do Protists Move?
• How Do Protists Reproduce?
• 27.4 Key Lineages of Protists
• Amoebozoa
• Excavata
• Plantae
• Rhizaria
• Alveolata
• Stramenopila (Heterokonta)
• Chapter Review
• 28 Green Algae and Land Plants
• 28.1 Why Do Biologists Study Green Algae and Land Plants?
• Plants Provide Ecosystem Services
• Plants Provide Humans with Food, Fuel, Fiber, Building Materials, and Medicines
• 28.2 How Do Biologists Study Green Algae and Land Plants?
• Analyzing Morphological Traits
• Using the Fossil Record
• Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies
• 28.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Land Plants?
• The Transition to Land, I: How Did Plants Adapt to Dry Conditions with Intense Sunlight?
• Mapping Evolutionary Changes on the Phylogenetic Tree
• The Transition to Land, II: How Do Plants Reproduce in Dry Conditions?
• The Angiosperm Radiation
• 28.4 Key Lineages of Green Algae and Land Plants
• Green Algae
• Nonvascular Plants
• Seedless Vascular Plants
• Seed Plants: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
• Chapter Review
• 29 Fungi
• 29.1 Why Do Biologists Study Fungi?
• Fungi Have Important Economic and Ecological Impacts
• Mycorrhizal Fungi Provide Nutrients for Land Plants
• Saprophytic Fungi Accelerate the Carbon Cycle on Land
• 29.2 How Do Biologists Study Fungi?
• Analyzing Morphological Traits
• Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies
• 29.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Fungi?
• Fungi Often Participate in Symbioses
• What Adaptations Make Fungi Such Effective Decomposers?
• Variation in Reproduction
• Four Major Types of Life Cycles
• 29.4 Key Lineages of Fungi
• Microsporidia
• Chytrids
• Zygomycetes
• Glomeromycota
• Basidiomycota
• Ascomycota
• Chapter Review
• 30 An Introduction to Animals
• 30.1 What Is an Animal?
• 30.2 What Key Innovations Occurred During the Origin of Animal Phyla?
• Origin of Multicellularity
• Origin of Embryonic Tissue Layers and Muscle
• Origin of Bilateral Symmetry, Cephalization, and the Nervous System
• Origin of the Coelom
• Origin of Protostomes and Deuterostomes
• Origin of Segmentation
• 30.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Animals Within Phyla?
• Sensory Organs
• Feeding
• Movement
• Reproduction
• Life Cycles
• 30.4 Key Lineages of Animals: Non-bilaterian Groups
• Porifera (Sponges)
• Ctenophora (Comb Jellies)
• Cnidaria (Jellyfish, Corals, Anemones, Hydroids)
• Chapter Review
• 31 Protostome Animals
• 31.1 What Is a Protostome?
• The Water-to-land Transition
• Modular Body Plans
• 31.2 What Is a Lophotrochozoan?
• What Is a Flatworm?
• What Is a Segmented Worm?
• What Is a Mollusk?
• 31.3 What Is an Ecdysozoan?
• What Is a Roundworm?
• What Are Tardigrades and Velvet Worms?
• What Is an Arthropod?
• Arthropod Diversity
• Arthropod Metamorphosis
• Chapter Review
• 32 Deuterostome Animals
• 32.1 What Is an Echinoderm?
• The Echinoderm Body Plan
• Echinoderms Are Important Consumers
• 32.2 What Is a Chordate?
• The Cephalochordates
• The Urochordates
• The Vertebrates
• 32.3 What Is a Vertebrate?
• 32.4 What Key Innovations Occurred During the Evolution of Vertebrates?
• Urochordates: Outgroup to Vertebrates
• First Vertebrates: Origin of the Cranium and Vertebrae
• Gnathostomes: Origin of the Vertebrate Jaw
• Origin of the Bony Endoskeleton
• Tetrapods: Origin of the Limb
• Amniotes: Origin of the Amniotic Egg
• Mammals: Origin of Lactation and Fur
• Reptiles: Origin of Scales and Feathers Made of Keratin
• Parental Care
• Take-Home Messages
• 32.5 The Primates and Hominins
• The Primates
• Fossil Humans
• The Out-of-Africa Hypothesis
• Have Humans Stopped Evolving?
• Chapter Review
• 33 Viruses
• 33.1 Why Do Biologists Study Viruses?
• Viruses Shape the Evolution of Organisms
• Viruses Cause Disease
• Current Viral Pandemics in Humans: Aids
• 33.2 How Do Biologists Study Viruses?
• Analyzing Morphological Traits
• Analyzing the Genetic Material
• Analyzing the Phases of Replicative Growth
• Analyzing How Viruses Coexist with Host Cells
• 33.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Viruses?
• Where Did Viruses Come From?
• Emerging Viruses, Emerging Diseases
• 33.4 Key Lineages of Viruses
• Chapter Review
• Big Picture Diversity of Life
• Unit 6 How Plants Work
• 34 Plant Form and Function
• 34.1 Plant Form: Themes with Many Variations
• The Importance of Surface Area/volume Relationships
• The Root System
• The Shoot System
• The Leaf
• 34.2 Plant Cells and Tissue Systems
• The Dermal Tissue System
• The Ground Tissue System
• The Vascular Tissue System
• 34.3 Primary Growth Extends the Plant Body
• How Do Apical Meristems Produce the Primary Plant Body?
• How Is the Primary Root System Organized?
• How Is the Primary Shoot System Organized?
• 34.4 Secondary Growth Widens Shoots and Roots
• What Is a Cambium?
• How Does a Cambium Initiate Secondary Growth?
• What Do Vascular Cambia Produce?
• What Do Cork Cambia Produce?
• The Structure of Tree Trunks
• Chapter Review
• 35 Water and Sugar Transport in Plants
• 35.1 Water Potential and Water Movement
• What Is Water Potential?
• What Factors Affect Water Potential?
• Working with Water Potentials
• Water Potentials in Soils, Plants, and the Atmosphere
• 35.2 How Does Water Move from Roots to Shoots?
• Movement of Water and Solutes into the Root
• Water Movement Via Root Pressure
• Water Movement Via Capillary Action
• The Cohesion-Tension Theory
• 35.3 Plant Features That Reduce Water Loss
• Limiting Water Loss
• Obtaining Carbon Dioxide Under Water Stress
• 35.4 Translocation of Sugars
• Tracing Connections Between Sources and Sinks
• The Anatomy of Phloem
• The Pressure-Flow Hypothesis
• Phloem Loading
• Phloem Unloading
• Chapter Review
• 36 Plant Nutrition
• 36.1 Nutritional Requirements of Plants
• Which Nutrients Are Essential?
• What Happens When Key Nutrients Are in Short Supply?
• 36.2 Soil: A Dynamic Mixture of Living and Nonliving Components
• The Importance of Soil Conservation
• What Factors Affect Nutrient Availability?
• 36.3 Nutrient Uptake
• Mechanisms of Nutrient Uptake
• Mechanisms of Ion Exclusion
• 36.4 Nitrogen Fixation
• The Role of Symbiotic Bacteria
• How Do Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Infect Plant Roots?
• 36.5 Nutritional Adaptations of Plants
• Parasitic Plants
• Epiphytic Plants
• Carnivorous Plants
• Chapter Review
• 37 Plant Sensory Systems, Signals, and Responses
• 37.1 Information Processing in Plants
• How Do Cells Receive and Process an External Signal?
• How Do Cells Respond to Cell–Cell Signals?
• 37.2 Blue Light: The Phototropic Response
• Phototropins as Blue-Light Receptors
• Auxin as the Phototropic Hormone
• 37.3 Red and Far-Red Light: Germination, Stem Elongation, and Flowering
• The Red/Far-Red “Wwitch”
• Phytochrome Is a Red/Far-Red Receptor
• Signals That Promote Flowering
• 37.4 Gravity: The Gravitropic Response
• The Statolith Hypothesis
• Auxin as the Gravitropic Signal
• 37.5 How Do Plants Respond to Wind and Touch?
• Changes in Growth Patterns
• Movement Responses
• 37.6 Youth, Maturity, and Aging: the Growth Responses
• Auxin and Apical Dominance
• Cytokinins and Cell Division
• Gibberellins and ABA: Growth and Dormancy
• Brassinosteroids and Body Size
• Ethylene and Senescence
• An Overview of Plant Growth Regulators
• 37.7 Pathogens and Herbivores: The Defense Responses
• How Do Plants Sense and Respond to Pathogens?
• How Do Plants Sense and Respond to Herbivore Attack?
• Chapter Review
• 38 Plant Reproduction and Development
• 38.1 An Introduction to Plant Reproduction
• Asexual Reproduction
• Sexual Reproduction and the Plant Life Cycle
• 38.2 Reproductive Structures
• The General Structure of the Flower
• How Are Female Gametophytes Produced?
• How Are Male Gametophytes Produced?
• 38.3 Pollination and Fertilization
• Pollination
• Fertilization
• 38.4 Seeds and Fruits
• The Role of Drying in Seed Maturation
• Fruit Development and Seed Dispersal
• Seed Dormancy
• Seed Germination
• 38.5 Embryogenesis and Vegetative Development
• Embryogenesis
• Meristem Formation
• Which Genes Determine Body Axes in the Plant Embryo?
• Which Genes Determine Leaf Structure and Shape?
• 38.6 Reproductive Development
• The Floral Meristem and the Flower
• The Genetic Control of Flower Structures
• Chapter Review
• Big Picture Plant and Animal Form and Function
• Unit 7 How Animals WorkUntitled
• 39 Animal Form and Function
• 39.1 Form, Function, and Adaptation
• The Role of Fitness Trade-Offs
• Adaptation and Acclimatization
• 39.2 Tissues, Organs, and Systems: How Does Structure Correlate with Function?
• Structure–Function Relationships at the Molecular and Cellular Levels
• Tissues Are Groups of Cells That Function as a Unit
• Organs and Organ Systems
• 39.3 How Does Body Size Affect Animal Physiology?
• Surface Area/Volume Relationships: Theory
• Surface Area/Volume Relationships: Data
• Adaptations That Increase Surface Area
• 39.4 Homeostasis
• Homeostasis: General Principles
• The Role of Regulation and Feedback
• 39.5 Thermoregulation: A Closer Look
• Mechanisms of Heat Exchange
• Thermoregulatory Strategies
• Comparing Endothermy and Ectothermy
• Countercurrent Heat Exchangers
• Chapter Review
• 40 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Animals
• 40.1 Osmoregulation and Excretion
• What Is Osmotic Stress?
• Osmotic Stress in Seawater, in Freshwater, and on Land
• How Do Electrolytes and Water Move Across Cell Membranes?
• Types of Nitrogenous Wastes: Impact on Water Balance
• 40.2 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Marine Fishes
• Osmoconformation versus Osmoregulation in Marine Fishes
• How Do Sharks Excrete Salt?
• 40.3 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Freshwater Fishes
• How Do Freshwater Fishes Osmoregulate?
• 40.4 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial Insects
• How Do Insects Minimize Water Loss from the Body Surface?
• 40.5 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial Vertebrates
• The Structure of the Mammalian Kidney
• The Function of the Mammalian Kidney: An Overview
• Filtration: The Renal Corpuscle
• Reabsorption: The Proximal Tubule
• Creating an Osmotic Gradient: The Loop of Henle
• Regulating Water and Electrolyte Balance: The Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct
• Urine Formation in Nonmammalian Vertebrates
• Chapter Review
• 41 Animal Nutrition
• 41.1 Nutritional Requirements
• 41.2 Capturing Food: The Structure and Function of Mouthparts
• Mouthparts as Adaptations
• A Case Study: The Cichlid Throat Jaw
• 41.3 How Are Nutrients Digested and Absorbed?
• An Introduction to the Digestive Tract
• An Overview of Digestive Processes
• The Mouth and Esophagus
• The Stomach
• The Small Intestine
• The Large Intestine
• 41.4 Nutritional Homeostasis—Glucose as a Case Study
• The Discovery of Insulin
• Insulin’s Role in Homeostasis
• Diabetes Mellitus Has Two Forms
• The Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Epidemic
• Chapter Review
• 42 Gas exchange and Circulation
• 42.1 The Respiratory and Circulatory Systems
• 42.2 Air and Water as Respiratory Media
• How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave in Air?
• How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave in Water?
• 42.3 Organs of Gas Exchange
• Physical Parameters: The Law of Diffusion
• How Do Gills Work?
• How Do Insect Tracheae Work?
• How Do Vertebrate Lungs Work?
• Homeostatic Control of Ventilation
• 42.4 How Are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transported in Blood?
• Structure and Function of Hemoglobin
• CO2 Transport and the Buffering of Blood pH
• 42.5 Circulation
• What Is an Open Circulatory System?
• What Is a Closed Circulatory System?
• How Does the Heart Work?
• Patterns in Blood Pressure and Blood Flow
• Chapter Review
• 43 Animal Nervous Systems
• 43.1 Principles of Electrical Signaling
• Types of Neurons
• The Anatomy of a Neuron
• An Introduction to Membrane Potentials
• How Is the Resting Potential Maintained?
• Using Electrodes to Measure Membrane Potentials
• What Is an Action Potential?
• 43.2 Dissecting the Action Potential
• Distinct Ion Currents Are Responsible for Depolarization and Repolarization
• How Do Voltage-Gated Channels Work?
• How Is the Action Potential Propagated?
• 43.3 The Synapse
• Synapse Structure and Neurotransmitter Release
• What Do Neurotransmitters Do?
• Postsynaptic Potentials
• 43.4 The Vertebrate Nervous System
• What Does the Peripheral Nervous System Do?
• Functional Anatomy of the CNS
• How Do Learning and Memory Work?
• Chapter Review
• 44 Animal Sensory Systems
• 44.1 How Do Sensory Organs Convey Information to the Brain?
• Sensory Transduction
• Transmitting Information to the Brain
• 44.2 Mechanoreception: Sensing Pressure Changes
• How Do Sensory Cells Respond to Sound Waves and Other Forms of Pressure?
• Hearing: The Mammalian Ear
• The Lateral Line System in Fishes and Amphibians
• 44.3 Photoreception: Sensing Light
• The Insect Eye
• The Vertebrate Eye
• 44.4 Chemoreception: Sensing Chemicals
• Taste: Detecting Molecules in the Mouth
• Olfaction: Detecting Molecules in the Air
• 44.5 Other Sensory Systems
• Thermoreception: Sensing Temperature
• Electroreception: Sensing Electric Fields
• Magnetoreception: Sensing Magnetic Fields
• Chapter Review
• 45 Animal Movement
• 45.1 How Do Muscles Contract?
• Early Muscle Experiments
• The Sliding-Filament Model
• How Do Actin and Myosin Interact?
• How Do Neurons Initiate Contraction?
• 45.2 Muscle Tissues
• Smooth Muscle
• Cardiac Muscle
• Skeletal Muscle
• 45.3 Skeletal Systems
• Hydrostatic Skeletons
• Endoskeletons
• Exoskeletons
• 45.4 Locomotion
• How Do Biologists Study Locomotion?
• Size Matters
• Chapter Review
• 46 Chemical Signals in Animals
• 46.1 Cell-to-Cell Signaling: An Overview
• Major Categories of Chemical Signals
• Hormone Signaling Pathways
• What Makes Up the Endocrine System?
• How Do Researchers Identify a Hormone?
• A Breakthrough in Measuring Hormone Levels
• 46.2 How Do Hormones Act on Target Cells?
• Hormone Concentrations Are Low, but Their Effects Are Large
• Three Chemical Classes of Hormones
• Steroid Hormones Bind to Intracellular Receptors
• Polypeptide Hormones Bind to Receptors on the Plasma Membrane
• Why Do Different Target Cells Respond in Different Ways?
• 46.3 What Do Hormones Do?
• How Do Hormones Direct Developmental Processes?
• How Do Hormones Coordinate Responses to Stressors?
• How Are Hormones Involved in Homeostasis?
• 46.4 How Is the Production of Hormones Regulated?
• The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
• Control of Epinephrine by Sympathetic Nerves
• Chapter Review
• 47 Animal Reproduction and Development
• 47.1 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
• How Does Asexual Reproduction Occur?
• Switching Reproductive Modes: A Case History
• Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction: Gametogenesis
• 47.2 Reproductive Structures and Their Functions
• The Male Reproductive System
• The Female Reproductive System
• 47.3 Fertilization and Egg Development
• External Fertilization
• Internal Fertilization
• The Cell Biology of Fertilization
• Why Do Some Females Lay Eggs While Others Give Birth?
• 47.4 Embryonic Development
• Cleavage
• Gastrulation
• Organogenesis
• 47.5 The Role of Sex Hormones in Mammalian Reproduction
• Which Hormones Control Puberty?
• Which Hormones Control the Menstrual Cycle in Humans?
• 47.6 Pregnancy and Birth in Mammals
• Gestation and Development in Marsupials
• Major Events During Human Pregnancy
• How Does the Mother Nourish the Fetus?
• Birth
• Chapter Review
• 48 The Immune System in Animals
• 48.1 Innate Immunity
• Barriers to Entry
• The Innate Immune Response
• 48.2 Adaptive Immunity: Recognition
• An Introduction to Lymphocytes
• Lymphocytes Recognize a Diverse Array of Antigens
• How Does the Immune System Distinguish Self from Nonself?
• 48.3 Adaptive Immunity: Activation
• The Clonal Selection Theory
• T-Cell Activation
• B-Cell Activation and Antibody Secretion
• 48.4 Adaptive Immunity: Response and Memory
• How Are Extracellular Pathogens Eliminated?
• How Are Intracellular Pathogens Eliminated?
• Why Does the Immune System Reject Foreign Tissues and Organs?
• Responding to Future Infections: Immunological Memory
• 48.5 What Happens When the Immune System Doesn’t Work Correctly?
• Allergies
• Autoimmune Diseases
• Immunodeficiency Diseases
• Chapter Review
• Unit 8 Ecology
• 49 An Introduction to Ecology
• 49.1 Levels of Ecological Study
• Organismal Ecology
• Population Ecology
• Community Ecology
• Ecosystem Ecology
• Global Ecology
• Conservation Biology Applies All Levels of Ecological Study
• 49.2 What Determines the Distribution and Abundance of Organisms?
• Abiotic Factors
• Biotic Factors
• History Matters: Past Abiotic and Biotic Factors Influence Present Patterns
• Biotic and Abiotic Factors Interact
• 49.3 Climate Patterns
• Why Are the Tropics Warm and the Poles Cold?
• Why Are the Tropics Wet?
• What Causes Seasonality in Weather?
• What Regional Effects Do Mountains and Oceans Have on Climate?
• 49.4 Types of Terrestrial Biomes
• Natural Biomes
• Anthropogenic Biomes
• How Will Global Climate Change Affect Terrestrial Biomes?
• 49.5 Types of Aquatic Biomes
• Salinity
• Water Depth and Sunlight Availability
• Water Flow
• Nutrient Availability
• How Are Aquatic Biomes Affected by Humans?
• Chapter Review
• 50 Behavioral Ecology
• 50.1 An Introduction to Behavioral Ecology
• Proximate and Ultimate Causation
• Types of Behavior: An Overview
• 50.2 Choosing What, How, and When to Eat
• Proximate Causes: Foraging Alleles in Drosophila melanogaster
• Ultimate Causes: Optimal Foraging
• 50.3 Choosing a Mate
• Proximate Causes: How Is Sexual Activity Triggered in Anolis Lizards?
• Ultimate Causes: Sexual Selection
• 50.4 Choosing a Place to Live
• Proximate Causes: How Do Animals Navigate?
• Ultimate Causes: Why Do Animals Migrate?
• 50.5 Communicating with Others
• Proximate Causes: How Do Honeybees Communicate?
• Ultimate Causes: Why Do Honeybees Communicate the Way They Do?
• When Is Communication Honest or Deceitful?
• 50.6 Cooperating with Others
• Kin Selection
• Quantitative Methods 50.1 Calculating the Coefficient of Relatedness
• Manipulation
• Reciprocal Altruism
• Cooperation and Mutualism
• Individuals Do Not Act for the Good of the Species
• Chapter Review
• 51 Population Ecology
• 51.1 Distribution and Abundance
• Geographic Distribution
• Sampling Methods
• 51.2 Demography
• Life Tables
• Quantitative Methods 51.1 Mark–Recapture Studies
• The Role of Life History
• Quantitative Methods 51.2 Using Life Tables to Calculate Population Growth Rates
• 51.3 Population Growth
• Exponential Growth
• Quantitative Methods 51.3 Using Growth Models to Predict Population Growth
• Logistic Growth
• What Factors Limit Population Size?
• 51.4 Population Dynamics
• Why Do Some Populations Cycle?
• How Do Metapopulations Change Through Time?
• 51.5 Human Population Growth
• Age Structure in Human Populations
• Analyzing Change in the Growth Rate of Human Populations
• 51.6 How Can Population Ecology Help Conserve Biodiversity?
• Using Life-Table Data
• Preserving Metapopulations
• Chapter Review
• 52 Community Ecology
• 52.1 Species Interactions
• Commensalism
• Competition
• Consumption
• Mutualism
• 52.2 Community Structure
• Why Are Some Species More Important Than Others in Structuring Communities?
• How Predictable Are Communities?
• 52.3 Community Dynamics
• Disturbance and Change in Ecological Communities
• Succession: the Development of Communities After Disturbance
• 52.4 Patterns in Species Richness
• Quantitative Methods 52.1 Measuring Species Diversity
• Predicting Species Richness: the Theory of Island Biogeography
• Global Patterns in Species Richness
• Chapter Review
• 53 Ecosystems and Global Ecology
• 53.1 How Does Energy Flow Through Ecosystems?
• How Efficient Are Autotrophs at Capturing Solar Energy?
• What Happens to the Biomass of Autotrophs?
• Energy Transfer Between Trophic Levels
• Global Patterns in Productivity
• 53.2 How Do Nutrients Cycle Through Ecosystems?
• Nutrient Cycling Within Ecosystems
• Global Biogeochemical Cycles
• 53.3 Global Climate Change
• What Is the Cause of Global Climate Change?
• How Much Will the Climate Change?
• Biological Effects of Climate Change
• Consequences to Net Primary Productivity
• Chapter Review
• 54 Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
• 54.1 What Is Biodiversity?
• Biodiversity Can Be Measured and Analyzed at Several Levels
• How Many Species Are Living Today?
• Where Is Biodiversity Highest?
• 54.2 Threats to Biodiversity
• Multiple Interacting Threats
• How Will These Threats Affect Future Extinction Rates?
• Quantitative Methods 54.1 Species–Area Plots
• 54.3 Why Is Biodiversity Important?
• Biological Benefits of Biodiversity
• Ecosystem Services: Economic and Social Benefits of Biodiversity and Ecosystems
• An Ethical Dimension
• 54.4 Preserving Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function
• Addressing the Ultimate Causes of Loss
• Conservation Strategies to Preserve Genetic Diversity, Species, and Ecosystem Function
• Take-Home Message
• Chapter Review
• Appendix A Answers
• Appendix B Periodic Table of Elements
• Glossary
• Credits
• Index