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• Brief contents
• Title page
• About the Authors
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Detailed Contents
• 1 Biology and Its Themes
• Concept 1.1 The study of life reveals unifying themes
• Theme: New Properties Emerge at Successive Levels of Biological Organization
• Theme: Life’s Processes Involve the Expression and Transmission of Genetic Information
• Theme: Life Requires the Transfer and Transformation of Energy and Matter
• Theme: From Molecules to Ecosystems, Interactions Are Important in Biological Systems
• Concept 1.2 The Core Theme: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life
• Classifying the Diversity of Life
• Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection
• The Tree of Life
• Concept 1.3 In studying nature, scientists form and test hypotheses
• Exploration and Observation
• Gathering and Analyzing Data
• Forming and Testing Hypotheses
• The Flexibility of the Scientific Process
• A Case Study in Scientific Inquiry:Investigating Coat Coloration in Mouse Populations
• Variables and Controls in Experiments
• Theories in Science
• Concept 1.4 Science benefits from a cooperative approach and diverse viewpoints
• Building on the Work of Others
• Science, Technology, and Society
• The Value of Diverse Viewpoints in Science
• Unit 1 The Role of Chemistry in Biology
• 2 Atoms and Molecules
• Concept 2.1 Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds
• Elements and Compounds
• The Elements of Life
• Case Study: Evolution of Tolerance to Toxic Elements
• Concept 2.2 An element’s properties depend on the structure of its atoms
• Subatomic Particles
• Atomic Number and Atomic Mass
• Isotopes
• The Energy Levels of Electrons
• Electron Distribution and Chemical Properties
• Electron Orbitals
• Concept 2.3 The formation and function of molecules and ionic compounds depend on chemical bonding b
• Covalent Bonds
• Ionic Bonds
• Weak Chemical Interactions
• Molecular Shape and Function
• Concept 2.4 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds
• 3 The Chemistry of Water
• Concept 3.1 Polar covalent bonds in water molecules result in hydrogen bonding
• Concept 3.2 Four emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’s suitability for life
• Cohesion of Water Molecules
• Moderation of Temperature by Water
• Floating of Ice on Liquid Water
• Water: The Solvent of Life
• Possible Evolution of Life on Other Planets
• Concept 3.3 Acidic and basic conditions affect living organisms
• Acids and Bases
• The pH Scale
• Buffers
• Acidification: A Threat to Our Oceans
• 4 Carbon: The Basis of Molecular Diversity
• Concept 4.1 Organic chemistry is key to the origin of life
• Concept 4.2 Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms
• The Formation of Bonds with Carbon
• Molecular Diversity Arising from Variation in Carbon Skeletons
• Concept 4.3 A few chemical groups are key to molecular function
• The Chemical Groups Most Important in the Processes of Life
• ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes
• The Chemical Elements of Life: A Review
• 5 Biological Macromolecules and Lipids
• Concept 5.1 Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers
• The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers
• The Diversity of Polymers
• Concept 5.2 Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material
• Sugars
• Polysaccharides
• Concept 5.3 Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
• Fats
• Phospholipids
• Steroids
• Concept 5.4 Proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions
• Amino Acids (Monomers)
• Polypeptides (Amino Acid Polymers)
• Protein Structure and Function
• Concept 5.5 Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express hereditary information
• The Roles of Nucleic Acids
• The Components of Nucleic Acids
• Nucleotide Polymers
• The Structures of DNA and RNA Molecules
• Concept 5.6 Genomics and proteomics have transformed biological inquiry and applications
• DNA and Proteins as Tape Measures of Evolution
• 6 Energy and Life
• Concept 6.1 An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy
• Metabolic Pathways
• Forms of Energy
• The Laws of Energy Transformation
• Concept 6.2 The free-energy change of a reaction tells us whether or not the reaction occurs spontan
• Free-Energy Change,
• Free Energy, Stability, and Equilibrium
• Free Energy and Metabolism
• Concept 6.3 ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions
• The Structure and Hydrolysis of ATP
• How ATP Provides Energy That Performs Work
• The Regeneration of ATP
• Concept 6.4 Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers
• The Activation Energy Barrier
• How Enzymes Speed Up Reactions
• Substrate Specificity of Enzymes
• Catalysis in the Enzyme’s Active Site
• Effects of Local Conditions on Enzyme Activity
• The Evolution of Enzymes
• Concept 6.5 Regulation of enzyme activity helps control metabolism
• Allosteric Regulation of Enzymes
• Localization of Enzymes Within the Cell
• Unit 2 Cell Biology
• 7 Cell Structure and Function
• Concept 7.1 Biologists use microscopes and biochemistry to study cells
• Microscopy
• Cell Fractionation
• Concept 7.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions
• Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
• A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell
• Concept 7.3 The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out b
• The Nucleus: Information Central
• Ribosomes: Protein Factories
• Concept 7.4 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions
• The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory
• The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center
• Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
• Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
• The Endomembrane System: A Review
• Concept 7.5 Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another
• The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
• Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
• Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
• Peroxisomes: Oxidation
• Concept 7.6 The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the
• Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support and Motility
• Components of the Cytoskeleton
• Concept 7.7 Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activiti
• Cell Walls of Plants
• The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells
• Cell Junctions
• Concept 7.8 A cell is greater than the sum of its parts
• 8 Cell Membranes
• Concept 8.1 Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins
• The Fluidity of Membranes
• Evolution of Differences in Membrane Lipid Composition
• Membrane Proteins and Their Functions
• The Role of Membrane Carbohydrates in Cell-Cell Recognition
• Synthesis and Sidedness of Membranes
• Concept 8.2 Membrane structure results in selective permeability
• The Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer
• Transport Proteins
• Concept 8.3 Passive transport is diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investmen
• Effects of Osmosis on Water Balance
• Facilitated Diffusion: Passive Transport Aided by Proteins
• Concept 8.4 Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their gradients
• The Need for Energy in Active Transport
• How Ion Pumps Maintain Membrane Potential
• Cotransport: Coupled Transport by a Membrane Protein
• Concept 8.5 Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis
• Exocytosis
• Endocytosis
• 9 Cellular Signaling
• Concept 9.1 External signals are converted to responses within the cell
• Evolution of Cell Signaling
• Local and Long-Distance Signaling
• The Three Stages of Cell Signaling: A Preview
• Concept 9.2 Signal reception: A signaling molecule binds to a receptor, causing it to change shape
• Receptors in the Plasma Membrane
• Intracellular Receptors
• Concept 9.3 Signal transduction: Cascades of molecular interactions transmit signals from receptors
• Signal Transduction Pathways
• Protein Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation
• Small Molecules and Ions as Second Messengers
• Concept 9.4 Cellular response: Cell signaling leads to regulation of transcription or cytoplasmic ac
• Nuclear and Cytoplasmic Responses
• Regulation of the Response
• Concept 9.5 Apoptosis requires integration of multiple cell-signaling pathways
• Apoptosis in the Soil Worm Caenorhabditis elegans
• Apoptotic Pathways and the Signals That Trigger Them
• 10 Cell Respiration
• Concept 10.1 Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels
• Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP
• Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction
• The Stages of Cellular Respiration: A Preview
• Concept 10.2 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
• Concept 10.3 After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidati
• Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
• The Citric Acid Cycle
• Concept 10.4 During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthe
• The Pathway of Electron Transport
• Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling Mechanism
• An Accounting of ATP Production by Cellular Respiration
• Concept 10.5 Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of o
• Types of Fermentation
• Comparing Fermentation with Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration
• The Evolutionary Significance of Glycolysis
• Concept 10.6 Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways
• The Versatility of Catabolism
• Biosynthesis (Anabolic Pathways)
• Regulation of Cellular Respiration via Feedback Mechanisms
• 11 Photosynthetic Processes
• Concept 11.1 Photosynthesis feeds the biosphere
• Concept 11.2 Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of food
• Chloroplasts: The Sites of Photosynthesis in Plants
• Tracking Atoms Through Photosynthesis
• The Two Stages of Photosynthesis: A Preview
• Concept 11.3 The light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH
• The Nature of Sunlight
• Photosynthetic Pigments: The Light Receptors
• Excitation of Chlorophyll by Light
• A Photosystem: A Reaction-Center Complex Associated with Light-Harvesting Complexes
• Linear Electron Flow
• Cyclic Electron Flow
• A Comparison of Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts and Mitochondria
• Concept 11.4 The Calvin cycle uses the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar
• Concept 11.5 Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, arid climates
• Photorespiration: An Evolutionary Relic?
• C4 Plants
• CAM Plants
• Concept 11.6 Photosynthesis is essential for life on Earth: a review
• 12 Mitosis
• Concept 12.1 Most cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells
• Key Roles of Cell Division
• Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material
• Distribution of Chromosomes During Eukaryotic Cell Division
• Concept 12.2 The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle
• Phases of the Cell Cycle
• The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look
• Cytokinesis: A Closer Look
• Binary Fission in Bacteria
• The Evolution of Mitosis
• Concept 12.3 The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system
• The Cell Cycle Control System
• Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells
• Unit 3 The Genetic Basis of Life
• 13 Sexual Life Cycles and Meiosis
• Concept 13.1 Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes
• Inheritance of Genes
• Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
• Concept 13.2 Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles
• Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells
• Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human Life Cycle
• The Variety of Sexual Life Cycles
• Concept 13.3 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid
• The Stages of Meiosis
• Crossing Over and Synapsis During Prophase
• A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
• Concept 13.4 Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution
• Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring
• The Evolutionary Significance of Genetic Variation Within Populations
• 14 Mendelian Genetics
• Concept 14.1 Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance
• Mendel’s Experimental, Quantitative Approach
• The Law of Segregation
• The Law of Independent Assortment
• Concept 14.2 Probability laws govern Mendelian inheritance
• The Multiplication and Addition Rules Applied to Monohybrid Crosses
• Solving Complex Genetics Problems with the Rules of Probability
• Concept 14.3 Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics
• Extending Mendelian Genetics for a Single Gene
• Extending Mendelian Genetics for Two or More Genes
• Nature and Nurture: The Environmental Impact on Phenotype
• A Mendelian View of Heredity and Variation
• Concept 14.4 Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance
• Pedigree Analysis
• Recessively Inherited Disorders
• Dominantly Inherited Disorders
• Multifactorial Disorders
• Genetic Testing and Counseling
• 15 Linkage and Chromosomes
• Concept 15.1 Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes
• Morgan’s Choice of Experimental Organism
• Correlating Behavior of a Gene’s Alleles with Behavior of a Chromosome Pair: Scientific Inquiry
• Concept 15.2 Sex-linked genes exhibit unique patterns of inheritance
• The Chromosomal Basis of Sex
• Inheritance of X-Linked Genes
• X Inactivation in Female Mammals
• Concept 15.3 Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located near each other on
• How Linkage Affects Inheritance
• Genetic Recombination and Linkage
• Mapping the Distance Between Genes Using Recombination Data: Scientific Inquiry
• Concept 15.4 Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders
• Abnormal Chromosome Number
• Alterations of Chromosome Structure
• Human Conditions Due to Chromosomal Alterations
• Concept 15.5 Some inheritance patterns are exceptions to standard Mendelian inheritance
• Genomic Imprinting
• Inheritance of Organelle Genes
• 16 Nucleic Acids and Inheritance
• DNA is the genetic material
• The Search for the Genetic Material: Scientific Inquiry
• Building a Structural Model of DNA
• Concept 16.2 Many proteins work together in DNA replication and repair
• The Basic Principle: Base Pairing to a Template Strand
• DNA Replication: A Closer Look
• Proofreading and Repairing DNA
• Evolutionary Significance of Altered DNA Nucleotides
• Replicating the Ends of DNA Molecules
• Concept 16.3 A chromosome consists of a DNA molecule packed together with proteins
• 17 Expression of Genes
• Concept 17.1 Genes specify proteins via transcription and translation
• Evidence from Studying Metabolic Defects
• Basic Principles of Transcription and Translation
• The Genetic Code
• Concept 17.2 Transcription is the DNA-directed synthesis of RNA: A Closer Look
• Molecular Components of Transcription
• Split Genes and RNA Splicing
• Concept 17.3 Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription
• Alteration of mRNA Ends
• Synthesis of an RNA Transcript
• Concept 17.4 Translation is the RNA-directed synthesis of a polypeptide: A Closer Look
• Molecular Components of Translation
• Building a Polypeptide
• Completing and Targeting the Functional Protein
• Making Multiple Polypeptides in Bacteria and Eukaryotes
• Concept 17.5 Mutations of one or a few nucleotides can affect protein structure and function
• Types of Small-Scale Mutations
• New Mutations and Mutagens
• Using CRISPR to Edit Genes and Correct Disease-Causing Mutations
• What Is a Gene? Revisiting the Question
• 18 Control of Gene Expression
• Concept 18.1 Bacteria often respond to environmental change by regulating transcription
• Operons: The Basic Concept
• Repressible and Inducible Operons: Two Types of Negative Gene Regulation
• Positive Gene Regulation
• Concept 18.2 Eukaryotic gene expression is regulated at many stages
• Differential Gene Expression
• Regulation of Chromatin Structure
• Regulation of Transcription Initiation
• Mechanisms of Post-transcriptional Regulation
• Concept 18.3 Noncoding RNAs play multiple roles in controlling gene expression
• Effects on mRNAs by MicroRNAs and Small Interfering RNAs
• Chromatin Remodeling and Effects on Transcription by ncRNAs
• Concept 18.4 A program of differential gene expression leads to the different cell types in a multic
• A Genetic Program for Embryonic Development
• Cytoplasmic Determinants and Inductive Signals
• Sequential Regulation of Gene Expression During Cellular Differentiation
• Pattern Formation: Setting Up the Body Plan
• Concept 18.5 Cancer results from genetic changes that affect cell cycle control
• Types of Genes Associated with Cancer
• Interference with Normal Cell-Signaling Pathways
• The Multistep Model of Cancer Development
• Inherited Predisposition and Environmental Factors Contributing to Cancer
• The Role of Viruses in Cancer
• 19 DNA Technology
• Concept 19.1 DNA sequencing and DNA cloning are valuable tools for genetic engineering and biologica
• DNA Sequencing
• Making Multiple Copies of a Gene or Other DNA Segment
• Using Restriction Enzymes to Make a Recombinant DNA Plasmid
• Amplifying DNA: The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and Its Use in DNA Cloning
• Expressing Cloned Eukaryotic Genes
• Concept 19.2 Biologists use DNA technology to study gene expression and function
• Analyzing Gene Expression
• Determining Gene Function
• Concept 19.3 Cloned organisms and stem cells are useful for basic research and other applications
• Cloning Plants: Single-Cell Cultures
• Cloning Animals: Nuclear Transplantation
• Stem Cells of Animals
• Concept 19.4 The practical applications of DNA-based biotechnology affect our lives in many ways
• Medical Applications
• Forensic Evidence and Genetic Profiles
• Environmental Cleanup
• Agricultural Applications
• Safety and Ethical Questions Raised by DNA Technology
• 20 The Evolution of Genomes
• Concept 20.1 The Human Genome Project fostered development of faster, less expensive sequencing tech
• Concept 20.2 Scientists use bioinformatics to analyze genomes and their functions
• Centralized Resources for Analyzing Genome Sequences
• Identifying Protein-Coding Genes and Understanding Their Functions
• Understanding Genes and Gene Expression at the Systems Level
• Concept 20.3 Genomes vary in size, number of genes, and gene density
• Genome Size
• Number of Genes
• Gene Density and Noncoding DNA
• Concept 20.4 Multicellular eukaryotes have a lot of noncoding DNA and many multigene families
• Transposable Elements and Related Sequences
• Other Repetitive DNA, Including Simple Sequence DNA
• Genes and Multigene Families
• Concept 20.5 Duplication, rearrangement, and mutation of DNA contribute to genome evolution
• Duplication of Entire Chromosome Sets
• Alterations of Chromosome Structure
• Duplication and Divergence of Gene-Sized Regions of DNA
• Rearrangements of Parts of Genes: Exon Duplication and Exon Shuffling
• How Transposable Elements Contribute to Genome Evolution
• Concept 20.6 Comparing genome sequences provides clues to evolution and development
• Comparing Genomes
• Widespread Conservation of Developmental Genes Among Animals
• Unit 4 Evolution
• 21 How Evolution Works
• Concept 21.1 The Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by unc
• Endless Forms Most Beautiful
• Scala Naturae and Classification of Species
• Ideas About Change over Time
• Lamarck’s Hypothesis of Evolution
• Concept 21.2 Descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of organisms an
• Darwin’s Research
• Ideas from The Origin of Species
• Key Features of Natural Selection
• Concept 21.3 Evolution is supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence
• Direct Observations of Evolutionary Change
• Homology
• The Fossil Record
• Biogeography
• What Is Theoretical About Darwin’s View of Life?
• 22 Phylogenetic Reconstruction
• Concept 22.1 Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships
• Binomial Nomenclature
• Hierarchical Classification
• Linking Classification and Phylogeny
• What We Can and Cannot Learn from Phylogenetic Trees
• Applying Phylogenies
• Concept 22.2 Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular data
• Morphological and Molecular Homologies
• Sorting Homology from Analogy
• Evaluating Molecular Homologies
• Concept 22.3 Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees
• Cladistics
• Phylogenetic Trees with Proportional Branch Lengths
• Maximum Parsimony and Maximum Likelihood
• Phylogenetic Trees as Hypotheses
• Concept 22.4 An organism’s evolutionary history is documented in its genome
• Gene Duplications and Gene Families
• Genome Evolution
• Concept 22.5 Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time
• Molecular Clocks
• Applying a Molecular Clock: Dating the Origin of HIV
• Concept 22.6 Our understanding of the tree of life continues to change based on new data
• From Two Kingdoms to Three Domains
• The Important Role of Horizontal Gene Transfer
• 23 Microevolution
• Concept 23.1 Genetic variation makes evolution possible
• Genetic Variation
• Sources of Genetic Variation
• Concept 23.2 The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to test whether a population is evolving
• Gene Pools and Allele Frequencies
• The Hardy-Weinberg Equation
• Concept 23.3 Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a popul
• Natural Selection
• Genetic Drift
• Gene Flow
• Concept 23.4 Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution
• Natural Selection: A Closer Look
• The Key Role of Natural Selection in Adaptive Evolution
• Sexual Selection
• Balancing Selection
• Why Natural Selection Cannot Fashion Perfect Organisms
• 24 Species and Speciation
• Concept 24.1 The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation
• The Biological Species Concept
• Other Definitions of Species
• Concept 24.2 Speciation can take place with or without geographic separation
• Allopatric (“Other Country”) Speciation
• Sympatric (“Same Country”) Speciation
• Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation: A Review
• Concept 24.3 Hybrid zones reveal factors that cause reproductive isolation
• Patterns Within Hybrid Zones
• Hybrid Zones and Environmental Change
• Hybrid Zones over Time
• Concept 24.4 Speciation can occur rapidly or slowly and can result from changes in few or many genes
• The Time Course of Speciation
• Studying the Genetics of Speciation
• From Speciation to Macroevolution
• 25 Macroevolution
• Concept 25.1 Conditions on early Earth made the origin of life possible
• Synthesis of Organic Compounds on Early Earth
• Abiotic Synthesis of Macromolecules
• Protocells
• Self-Replicating RNA
• Concept 25.2 The fossil record documents the history of life
• The Fossil Record
• How Rocks and Fossils Are Dated
• The Origin of New Groups of Organisms
• Concept 25.3 Key events in life’s history include the origins of unicellular and multicellular org
• The First Single-Celled Organisms
• The Origin of Multicellularity
• The Colonization of Land
• Concept 25.4 The rise and fall of groups of organisms reflect differences in speciation and extincti
• Plate Tectonics
• Mass Extinctions
• Adaptive Radiations
• Concept 25.5 Major changes in body form can result from changes in the sequences and regulation of d
• Effects of Developmental Genes
• The Evolution of Development
• Concept 25.6 Evolution is not goal oriented
• Evolutionary Novelties
• Evolutionary Trends
• Unit 5 The Diversity of Life
• 26 Introduction to Viruses
• Concept 26.1 A virus consists of a nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat
• The Discovery of Viruses: Scientific Inquiry
• Structure of Viruses
• Concept 26.2 Viruses replicate only in host cells
• General Features of Viral Replicative Cycles
• Replicative Cycles of Phages
• Replicative Cycles of Animal Viruses
• Evolution of Viruses
• Concept 26.3 Viruses and prions are formidable pathogens in animals and plants
• Viral Diseases in Animals
• Emerging Viral Diseases
• Viral Diseases in Plants
• Prions: Proteins as Infectious Agents
• 27 Prokaryotes
• Concept 27.1 Structural and functional adaptations contribute to prokaryotic success
• Cell-Surface Structures
• Motility
• Internal Organization and DNA
• Reproduction
• Concept 27.2 Rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination promote genetic diversity in pr
• Rapid Reproduction and Mutation
• Genetic Recombination
• Concept 27.3 Diverse nutritional and metabolic adaptations have evolved in prokaryotes
• The Role of Oxygen in Metabolism
• Nitrogen Metabolism
• Metabolic Cooperation
• Concept 27.4 Prokaryotes have radiated into a diverse set of lineages
• An Overview of Prokaryotic Diversity
• Bacteria
• Archaea
• Concept 27.5 Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere
• Chemical Recycling
• Ecological Interactions
• Concept 27.6 Prokaryotes have both beneficial and harmful impacts on humans
• Mutualistic Bacteria
• Pathogenic Bacteria
• Antibiotic Resistance
• Prokaryotes in Research and Technology
• 28 The Origin and Evolution of Eukaryotes
• Concept 28.1 Most eukaryotes are singlecelled organisms
• Structural and Functional Diversity in Protists
• Endosymbiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution
• Four Supergroups of Eukaryotes
• Concept 28.2 Excavates include protists with modified mitochondria and protists with unique flagella
• Diplomonads and Parabasalids
• Euglenozoans
• Concept 28.3 SAR is a highly diverse group of protists defined by DNA similarities
• Stramenopiles
• Alveolates
• Rhizarians
• Concept 28.4 Red algae and green algae are the closest relatives of plants
• Red Algae
• Green Algae
• Concept 28.5 Unikonts include protists that are closely related to fungi and animals
• Amoebozoans
• Opisthokonts
• Concept 28.6 Protists play key roles in ecological communities
• Symbiotic Protists
• Photosynthetic Protists
• 29 Nonvascular and Seedless Vascular Plants
• Concept 29.1 Plants evolved from green algae
• Evidence of Algal Ancestry
• Adaptations Enabling the Move to Land
• Derived Traits of Plants
• The Origin and Diversification of Plants
• Concept 29.2 Mosses and other nonvascular plants have life cycles dominated by gametophytes
• Bryophyte Gametophytes
• Bryophyte Sporophytes
• The Ecological and Economic Importance of Mosses
• Concept 29.3 Ferns and other seedless vascular plants were the first plants to grow tall
• Origins and Traits of Vascular Plants
• Classification of Seedless Vascular Plants
• The Significance of Seedless Vascular Plants
• 30 Seed Plants
• Concept 30.1 Seeds and pollen grains are key adaptations for life on land
• Advantages of Reduced Gametophytes
• Heterospory: The Rule Among Seed Plants
• Ovules and Production of Eggs
• Pollen and Production of Sperm
• The Evolutionary Advantage of Seeds
• Concept 30.2 Gymnosperms bear “naked” seeds, typically on cones
• The Life Cycle of a Pine
• Early Seed Plants and the Rise of Gymnosperms
• Gymnosperm Diversity
• Concept 30.3 The reproductive adaptations of angiosperms include flowers and fruits
• Characteristics of Angiosperms
• Angiosperm Evolution
• Angiosperm Diversity
• Concept 30.4 Human welfare depends on seed plants
• Products from Seed Plants
• Threats to Plant Diversity
• 31 Introduction to Fungi
• Concept 31.1 Fungi are heterotrophs that feed by absorption
• Nutrition and Ecology
• Body Structure
• Specialized Hyphae in Mycorrhizal Fungi
• Concept 31.2 Fungi produce spores through sexual or asexual life cycles
• Sexual Reproduction
• Asexual Reproduction
• Concept 31.3 The ancestor of fungi was an aquatic, single-celled, flagellated protist
• The Origin of Fungi
• The Move to Land
• Concept 31.4 Fungi have radiated into a diverse set of lineages
• Cryptomycetes and Microsporidians
• Zoopagomycetes
• Mucoromycetes
• Ascomycetes
• Basidiomycetes
• Concept 31.5 Fungi play key roles in nutrient cycling, ecological interactions, and human welfare
• Fungi as Decomposers
• Fungi as Mutualists
• Practical Uses of Fungi
• 32 An Introduction to Animal Diversity
• Concept 32.1 Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embr
• Nutritional Mode
• Cell Structure and Specialization
• Reproduction and Development
• Concept 32.2 The history of animals spans more than half a billion years
• Steps in the Origin of Multicellular Animals
• Neoproterozoic Era (1 Billion–541 Million Years Ago)
• Paleozoic Era (541–252 Million Years Ago)
• Mesozoic Era (252–66 Million Years Ago)
• Cenozoic Era (66 Million Years Ago to the Present)
• Concept 32.3 Animals can be characterized by body plans
• Symmetry
• Tissues
• Body Cavities
• Protostome and Deuterostome Development
• Concept 32.4 Views of animal phylogeny continue to be shaped by new molecular and morphological data
• The Diversification of Animals
• Future Directions in Animal Systematics
• 33 Invertebrates
• Concept 33.1 Sponges are basal animals that lack tissues
• Concept 33.2 Cnidarians are an ancient phylum of eumetazoans
• Medusozoans
• Anthozoans
• Concept 33.3 Lophotrochozoans, a clade identified by molecular data, have the widest range of animal
• Flatworms
• Rotifers and Acanthocephalans
• Ectoprocts and Brachiopods
• Molluscs
• Annelids
• Concept 33.4 Ecdysozoans are the most species-rich animal group
• Nematodes
• Arthropods
• Concept 33.5 Echinoderms and chordates are deuterostomes
• Echinoderms
• Chordates
• 34 Vertebrates
• Concept 34.1 Chordates have a notochord and a dorsal, hollow nerve cord
• Derived Characters of Chordates
• Lancelets
• Tunicates
• Early Chordate Evolution
• Concept 34.2 Vertebrates are chordates that have a backbone
• Derived Characters of Vertebrates
• Hagfishes and Lampreys
• Early Vertebrate Evolution
• Concept 34.3 Gnathostomes are vertebrates that have jaws
• Derived Characters of Gnathostomes
• Fossil Gnathostomes
• Chondrichthyans (Sharks, Rays, and Their Relatives)
• Ray-Finned Fishes and Lobe-Fins
• Concept 34.4 Tetrapods are gnathostomes that have limbs
• Derived Characters of Tetrapods
• The Origin of Tetrapods
• Amphibians
• Concept 34.5 Amniotes are tetrapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg
• Derived Characters of Amniotes
• Early Amniotes
• Reptiles
• Concept 34.6 Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk
• Derived Characters of Mammals
• Early Evolution of Mammals
• Monotremes
• Marsupials
• Eutherians (Placental Mammals)
• Concept 34.7 Humans are mammals that have a large brain and bipedal locomotion
• Derived Characters of Humans
• The Earliest Hominins
• Australopiths
• Bipedalism
• Tool Use
• Early Homo
• Neanderthals
• Homo sapiens
• Unit 6 Plants: Structure and Function
• 35 Plant Structure and Growth
• Concept 35.1 Plants have a hierarchical organization consisting of organs, tissues, and cells
• Vascular Plant Organs: Roots, Stems, and Leaves
• Dermal, Vascular, and Ground Tissues
• Common Types of Plant Cells
• Concept 35.2 Different meristems generate new cells for primary and secondary growth
• Concept 35.3 Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots
• Primary Growth of Roots
• Primary Growth of Shoots
• Concept 35.4 Secondary growth increases the diameter of stems and roots in woody plants
• The Vascular Cambium and Secondary Vascular Tissue
• The Cork Cambium and the Production of Periderm
• Evolution of Secondary Growth
• Concept 35.5 Growth, morphogenesis, and cell differentiation produce the plant body
• Model Organisms: Revolutionizing the Study of Plants
• Growth: Cell Division and Cell Expansion
• Morphogenesis and Pattern Formation
• Gene Expression and the Control of Cell Differentiation
• Shifts in Development: Phase Changes
• Genetic Control of Flowering
• 36 Transport in Vascular Plants
• Concept 36.1 Adaptations for acquiring resources were key steps in the evolution of vascular plants
• Shoot Architecture and Light Capture
• Root Architecture and Acquisition of Water and Minerals
• Concept 36.2 Different mechanisms transport substances over short or long distances
• The Apoplast and Symplast: Transport Continuums
• Short-Distance Transport of Solutes Across Plasma Membranes
• Short-Distance Transport of Water Across Plasma Membranes
• Long-Distance Transport: The Role of Bulk Flow
• Concept 36.3 Transpiration drives the transport of water and minerals from roots to shoots via the x
• Absorption of Water and Minerals by Root Cells
• Transport of Water and Minerals into the Xylem
• Bulk Flow Transport via the Xylem
• Xylem Sap Ascent by Bulk Flow: A Review
• Concept 36.4 The rate of transpiration is regulated by stomata
• Stomata: Major Pathways for Water Loss
• Mechanisms of Stomatal Opening and Closing
• Stimuli for Stomatal Opening and Closing
• Effects of Transpiration on Wilting and Leaf Temperature
• Adaptations That Reduce Evaporative Water Loss
• Concept 36.5 Sugars are transported from sources to sinks via the phloem
• Movement from Sugar Sources to Sugar Sinks
• Bulk Flow by Positive Pressure: The Mechanism of Translocation in Angiosperms
• Concept 36.6 The symplast is highly dynamic
• Changes in Plasmodesmatal Number and Pore Size
• Phloem: An Information Superhighway
• Electrical Signaling in the Phloem
• 37 Plant Nutrition
• Concept 37.1 Soil contains a living, complex ecosystem
• Soil Texture
• Topsoil Composition
• Soil Conservation and Sustainable Agriculture
• Concept 37.2 Plant roots absorb many types of essential elements from the soil
• Essential Elements
• Symptoms of Mineral Deficiency
• Global Climate Change and Food Quality
• Concept 37.3 Plant nutrition often involves relationships with other organisms
• Bacteria and Plant Nutrition
• Fungi and Plant Nutrition
• Epiphytes, Parasitic Plants, and Carnivorous Plants
• 38 Reproduction of Flowering Plants
• Concept 38.1 Flowers, double fertilization, and fruits are key features of the angiosperm life cycle
• Flower Structure and Function
• Methods of Pollination
• The Angiosperm Life Cycle: An Overview
• Development of Female Gametophytes (Embryo Sacs)
• Development of Male Gametophytes in Pollen Grains
• Seed Development and Structure
• Sporophyte Development from Seed to Mature Plant
• Fruit Structure and Function
• Concept 38.2 Flowering plants reproduce sexually, asexually, or both
• Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
• Mechanisms That Prevent Self-Fertilization
• Totipotency, Vegetative Reproduction, and Tissue Culture
• Concept 38.3 People modify crops by breeding and genetic engineering
• Plant Breeding
• Plant Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
• The Debate over Plant Biotechnology
• 39 Plant Signals and Behavior
• Concept 39.1 Signal transduction pathways link signal reception to response
• Transduction
• Reception
• Response
• Concept 39.2 Plants use chemicals to communicate
• General Characteristics of Plant Hormones
• A Survey of Plant Hormones
• Concept 39.3 Responses to light are critical for plant success
• Blue-Light Photoreceptors
• Phytochrome Photoreceptors
• Biological Clocks and Circadian Rhythms
• The Effect of Light on the Biological Clock
• Photoperiodism and Responses to Seasons
• Concept 39.4 Plants respond to a wide variety of stimuli other than light
• Gravity
• Mechanical Stimuli
• Environmental Stresses
• Concept 39.5 Plants respond to attacks by pathogens and herbivores
• Defenses Against Pathogens
• Defenses Against Herbivores
• Unit 7 Animals: Structure and Function
• 40 The Animal Body
• Concept 40.1 Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization
• Evolution of Animal Size and Shape
• Exchange with the Environment
• Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
• Coordination and Control
• Concept 40.2 Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals
• Regulating and Conforming
• Homeostasis
• Concept 40.3 Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior
• Endothermy and Ectothermy
• Variation in Body Temperature
• Balancing Heat Loss and Gain
• Acclimatization in Thermoregulation
• Physiological Thermostats and Fever
• Concept 40.4 Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment
• Energy Allocation and Use
• Quantifying Energy Use
• Minimum Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation
• Influences on Metabolic Rate
• Torpor and Energy Conservation
• 41 Chemical Signals in Animals
• Concept 41.1 Hormones and other signaling molecules bind to target receptors, triggering specific re
• Intercellular Information Flow
• Chemical Classes of Hormones
• Cellular Hormone Response Pathways
• Endocrine Tissues and Organs
• Concept 41.2 Feedback regulation and coordination with the nervous system are common in hormone path
• Simple Endocrine Pathways
• Simple Neuroendocrine Pathways
• Feedback Regulation
• Coordination of the Endocrine and Nervous Systems
• Thyroid Regulation: A Hormone Cascade Pathway
• Hormonal Regulation of Growth
• Concept 41.3 Endocrine glands respond to diverse stimuli in regulating homeostasis, development, and
• Parathyroid Hormone and Vitamin D: Control of Blood Calcium
• Adrenal Hormones: Response to Stress
• Sex Hormones
• Hormones and Biological Rhythms
• Evolution of Hormone Function
• 42 Animal Digestive Systems
• Concept 42.1 An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy, organic building blocks, and essential
• Essential Nutrients
• Variation in Diet
• Dietary Deficiencies
• Assessing Nutritional Needs
• Concept 42.2 Food processing involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination
• Digestive Compartments
• Concept 42.3 Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestiv
• The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
• Digestion in the Stomach
• Digestion in the Small Intestine
• Absorption in the Small Intestine
• Processing in the Large Intestine
• Concept 42.4 Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet
• Dental Adaptations
• Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations
• Mutualistic Adaptations
• Concept 42.5 Feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite
• Regulation of Digestion
• Regulation of Energy Storage
• Regulation of Appetite and Consumption
• 43 Animal Transport Systems
• Concept 43.1 Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body
• Gastrovascular Cavities
• Open and Closed Circulatory Systems
• Organization of Vertebrate Circulatory Systems
• Concept 43.2 Coordinated cycles of heart contraction drive double circulation in mammals
• Mammalian Circulation
• The Mammalian Heart: A Closer Look
• Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat
• Concept 43.3 Patterns of blood pressure and flow reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vess
• Blood Vessel Structure and Function
• Blood Flow Velocity
• Blood Pressure
• Capillary Function
• Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System
• Concept 43.4 Blood components function in exchange, transport, and defense
• Blood Composition and Function
• Cardiovascular Disease
• Concept 43.5 Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces
• Partial Pressure Gradients in Gas Exchange
• Respiratory Media
• Respiratory Surfaces
• Gills in Aquatic Animals
• Tracheal Systems in Insects
• Lungs
• Concept 43.6 Breathing ventilates the lungs
• How an Amphibian Breathes
• How a Bird Breathes
• How a Mammal Breathes
• Control of Breathing in Humans
• Concept 43.7 Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases
• Coordination of Circulation and Gas Exchange
• Respiratory Pigments
• Respiratory Adaptations of Diving Mammals
• 44 Animal Excretory Systems
• Concept 44.1 Osmoregulation balances the uptake and loss of water and solutes
• Osmosis and Osmolarity
• Osmoregulatory Challenges and Mechanisms
• Energetics of Osmoregulation
• Transport Epithelia in Osmoregulation
• Concept 44.2 An animal’s nitrogenous wastes reflect its phylogeny and habitat
• Forms of Nitrogenous Waste
• The Influence of Evolution and Environment on Nitrogenous Wastes
• Concept 44.3 Diverse excretory systems are variations on a tubular theme
• Survey of Excretory Systems
• Concept 44.4 The nephron is organized for stepwise processing of blood filtrate
• From Blood Filtrate to Urine: A Closer Look
• Solute Gradients and Water Conservation
• Adaptations of the Vertebrate Kidney to Diverse Environments
• Concept 44.5 Hormonal circuits link kidney function, water balance, and blood pressure
• Homeostatic Regulation of the Kidney
• 45 Animal Reproductive Systems
• Concept 45.1 Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom
• Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
• Variation in Patterns of Sexual Reproduction
• Reproductive Cycles
• Sexual Reproduction: An Evolutionary Enigma
• Concept 45.2 Fertilization depends on mechanisms that bring together sperm and eggs of the same spec
• Ensuring the Survival of Offspring
• Gamete Production and Delivery
• Concept 45.3 Reproductive organs produce and transport gametes
• Human Male Reproductive Anatomy
• Human Female Reproductive Anatomy
• Gametogenesis
• Concept 45.4 The interplay of tropic and sex hormones regulates reproduction in mammals
• Biological Sex, Gender Identity, and Sexual Orientation in Human Sexuality
• Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System
• Hormonal Control of Female Reproductive Cycles
• Human Sexual Response
• Concept 45.5 In placental mammals, an embryo develops fully within the mother’s uterus
• Conception, Embryonic Development, and Birth
• Maternal Immune Tolerance of the Embryo and Fetus
• Contraception and Abortion
• Modern Reproductive Technologies
• 46 Development in Animals
• Concept 46.1 Fertilization and cleavage initiate embryonic development
• Fertilization
• Cleavage
• Concept 46.2 Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and surviva
• Gastrulation
• Developmental Adaptations of Amniotes
• Organogenesis
• The Cytoskeleton in Morphogenesis
• Concept 46.3 Cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals regulate cell fate
• Fate Mapping
• Axis Formation
• Restricting Developmental Potential
• Cell Fate Determination and Pattern Formation by Inductive Signals
• Cilia and Cell Fate
• 47 Animal Defenses Against Infection
• Concept 47.1 In innate immunity, recognition and response rely on traits common to groups of pathoge
• Innate Immunity of Invertebrates
• Innate Immunity of Vertebrates
• Evasion of Innate Immunity by Pathogens
• Concept 47.2 In adaptive immunity, receptors provide pathogen-specific recognition
• Antigen Recognition by B Cells and Antibodies
• Antigens as the Trigger for Adaptive Immunity
• Antigen Recognition by T Cells
• B Cell and T Cell Development
• Concept 47.3 Adaptive immunity defends against infection of body fluids and body cells
• Helper T Cells: Activating Adaptive Immunity
• B Cells and Antibodies: A Response to Extracellular Pathogens
• Cytotoxic T Cells: A Response to Infected Host Cells
• Summary of the Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immune Responses
• Immunization
• Active and Passive Immunity
• Antibodies as Tools
• Immune Rejection
• Concept 47.4 Disruptions in immune system function can elicit or exacerbate disease
• Exaggerated, Self-Directed, and Diminished Immune Responses
• Evolutionary Adaptations of Pathogens That Underlie Immune System Avoidance
• Cancer and Immunity
• 48 Electrical Signals in Animals
• Concept 48.1 Neuron structure and organization reflect function in information transfer
• Neuron Structure and Function
• Introduction to Information Processing
• Concept 48.2 Ion pumps and ion channels establish the resting potential of a neuron
• Formation of the Resting Potential
• Modeling the Resting Potential
• Concept 48.3 Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons
• Hyperpolarization and Depolarization
• Graded Potentials and Action Potentials
• Generation of Action Potentials: A Closer Look
• Conduction of Action Potentials
• Concept 48.4 Neurons communicate with other cells at synapses
• Generation of Postsynaptic Potentials
• Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials
• Termination of Neurotransmitter Signaling
• Modulated Signaling at Synapses
• Neurotransmitters
• 49 Neural Regulation in Animals
• Concept 49.1 Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells
• Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous System
• The Peripheral Nervous System
• Glia
• Concept 49.2 The vertebrate brain is regionally specialized
• Arousal and Sleep
• Biological Clock Regulation
• Emotions
• Functional Imaging of the Brain
• Concept 49.3 The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions
• Information Processing
• Language and Speech
• Lateralization of Cortical Function
• Frontal Lobe Function
• Evolution of Cognition in Vertebrates
• Concept 49.4 Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning
• Neuronal Plasticity
• Memory and Learning
• Long-Term Potentiation
• Concept 49.5 Many nervous system disorders can now be explained in molecular terms
• Schizophrenia
• Depression
• The Brain’s Reward System and Drug Addiction
• Alzheimer’s Disease
• Parkinson’s Disease
• Future Directions in Brain Research
• 50 Sensation and Movement in Animals
• Concept 50.1 Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous
• Sensory Reception and Transduction
• Transmission
• Perception
• Amplification and Adaptation
• Types of Sensory Receptors
• Concept 50.2 In hearing and equilibrium, mechanoreceptors detect moving fluid or settling particles
• Sensing of Gravity and Sound in Invertebrates
• Hearing and Equilibrium in Mammals
• Hearing and Equilibrium in Other Vertebrates
• Concept 50.3 The diverse visual receptors of animals depend on lightabsorbing pigments
• Evolution of Visual Perception
• The Vertebrate Visual System
• Concept 50.4 The senses of taste and smell rely on similar sets of sensory receptors
• Taste in Mammals
• Smell in Humans
• Concept 50.5 The physical interaction of protein filaments is required for muscle function
• Vertebrate Skeletal Muscle
• Other Types of Muscle
• Concept 50.6 Skeletal systems transform muscle contraction into locomotion
• Types of Skeletal Systems
• Types of Locomotion
• Unit 8 The Ecology of Life
• 51 An Overview of Ecology
• Concept 51.1 Earth’s climate varies by latitude and season and is changing rapidly
• Global Climate Patterns
• Regional and Local Effects on Climate
• Effects of Vegetation on Climate
• Microclimate
• Global Climate Change
• Concept 51.2 The distribution of terrestrial biomes is controlled by climate and disturbance
• Climate and Terrestrial Biomes
• General Features of Terrestrial Biomes
• Disturbance and Terrestrial Biomes
• Concept 51.3 Aquatic biomes are diverse and dynamic systems that cover most of Earth
• Zonation in Aquatic Biomes
• Concept 51.4 Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species
• Dispersal and Distribution
• Biotic Factors
• Abiotic Factors
• Concept 51.5 Ecological change and evolution affect one another over long and short periods of time
• 52 Behavioral Ecology
• Concept 52.1 Discrete sensory inputs can stimulate both simple and complex behaviors
• Fixed Action Patterns
• Migration
• Behavioral Rhythms
• Animal Signals and Communication
• Concept 52.2 Learning establishes specific links between experience and behavior
• Experience and Behavior
• Learning
• Concept 52.3 Selection for individual survival and reproductive success can explain diverse behavior
• Evolution of Foraging Behavior
• Mating Behavior and Mate Choice
• Concept 52.4 Genetic analyses and the concept of inclusive fitness provide a basis for studying the
• Genetic Basis of Behavior
• Genetic Variation and the Evolution of Behavior
• Altruism
• Inclusive Fitness
• Evolution and Human Culture
• 53 Populations and Life History Traits
• Concept 53.1 Biotic and abiotic factors affect population density, dispersion, and demographics
• Density and Dispersion
• Demographics
• Concept 53.2 The exponential model describes population growth in an idealized, unlimited environmen
• Changes in Population Size
• Exponential Growth
• Concept 53.3 The logistic model describes how a population grows more slowly as it nears its carryin
• The Logistic Growth Model
• The Logistic Model and Real Populations
• Concept 53.4 Life history traits are products of natural selection
• Diversity of Life Histories
• “Trade-offs” and Life Histories
• Concept 53.5 Density-dependent factors regulate population growth
• Population Change and Population Density
• Mechanisms of Density-Dependent Population Regulation
• Population Dynamics
• Concept 53.6 The human population is no longer growing exponentially but is still increasing extreme
• The Global Human Population
• Global Carrying Capacity
• 54 Biodiversity and Communities
• Concept 54.1 Interactions between species can help, harm, or have no effect on the individuals invol
• Competition
• Exploitation
• Positive Interactions
• Concept 54.2 Diversity and trophic structure characterize biological communities
• Species Diversity
• Diversity and Community Stability
• Trophic Structure
• Species with a Large Impact
• Bottom-Up and Top-Down Controls
• Concept 54.3 Disturbance influences species diversity and composition
• Characterizing Disturbance
• Ecological Succession
• Human Disturbance
• Concept 54.4 Biogeographic factors affect community diversity
• Latitudinal Gradients
• Area Effects
• Island Equilibrium Model
• Concept 54.5 Pathogens alter community structure locally and globally
• Effects on Community Structure
• Community Ecology and Zoonotic Diseases
• 55 Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling in Ecosystems
• Concept 55.1 Physical laws govern energy flow and chemical cycling in ecosystems
• Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling
• Conservation of Energy
• Conservation of Mass
• Energy, Mass, and Trophic Levels
• Concept 55.2 Energy and other limiting factors control primary production in ecosystems
• Ecosystem Energy Budgets
• Primary Production in Aquatic Ecosystems
• Primary Production in Terrestrial Ecosystems
• Effects of Climate Change on Production
• Concept 55.3 Energy transfer between trophic levels is typically only 10% efficient
• Production Efficiency
• Trophic Efficiency and Ecological Pyramids
• Concept 55.4 Biological and geochemical processes cycle nutrients and water in ecosystems
• Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling Rates
• Biogeochemical Cycles
• Case Study: Nutrient Cycling in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest
• Concept 55.5 Restoration ecologists return degraded ecosystems to a more natural state
• Bioremediation
• Biological Augmentation
• Ecosystems: A Review
• 56 Conservation and Global Ecology
• Concept 56.1 Human activities threaten earth’s biodiversity
• Three Levels of Biodiversity
• Biodiversity and Human Welfare
• Threats to Biodiversity
• Can Extinct Species Be Resurrected?
• Concept 56.2 Population conservation focuses on population size, genetic diversity, and critical hab
• Extinction Risks in Small Populations
• Critical Habitat
• Weighing Conflicting Demands
• Concept 56.3 Landscape and regional conservation help sustain biodiversity
• Landscape Structure and Biodiversity
• Establishing Protected Areas
• Urban Ecology
• Concept 56.4 Earth is changing rapidly as a result of human actions
• Nutrient Enrichment
• Toxins in the Environment
• Greenhouse Gases and Climate Change
• Depletion of Atmospheric Ozone
• Concept 56.5 Sustainable development can improve human lives while conserving biodiversity
• Sustainable Development
• The Future of the Biosphere
• Appendix A
• Appendix B
• Appendix C
• Appendix D
• Credits
• Glossary
• Index