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• Brown’s Boundary Control and Legal Principles
• Copyright
• Contents
• Preface to the Seventh Edition
• Acknowledgments
• Chapter 1: History and Concept of Boundaries
• 1.1 Introduction
• 1.2 Significance of Boundaries
• 1.3 Boundary References
• 1.4 Terminus: The God (or Goddess) of Boundaries
• 1.5 Disputes and Boundaries
• 1.6 Role of the Surveyor in Boundaries
• 1.7 What Is Being Created? What is Being located?
• 1.8 Original Written Title
• 1.9 Rights and Interests in Land Are Composed of a Bundle of Rights
• 1.10 Role of the Court
• 1.11 Real and Personal Property
• 1.12 What Constitutes Real Property
• 1.13 Nature of Modern Estates
• 1.14 Taxes on Land and Tax Maps
• 1.15 Easements and Licenses
• 1.16 Servitudes, Restrictions, Covenants, and Conditions
• 1.17 Actions on Boundaries and Easements
• 1.18 One Unique Parcel or Boundary
• 1.19 The Original Boundaries Are Sacred
• 1.20 Conclusions
• Bibliography
• Notes
• Chapter 2: How Boundaries are Created
• 2.1 Introduction
• 2.2 Definitions
• 2.3 Classification of Boundaries
• 2.4 Methods of Boundary Creation
• Creation of Boundaries by Running Lines
• Creation of Boundaries by Verbal Actions
• Creation of Boundaries by Survey
• 2.5 Who May Create Boundaries?
• 2.6 Sanctity of the Original Survey
• 2.7 Original Lines Remain Fixed
• 2.8 Distinctions between the Original Boundary Survey, the Retracement Survey, and the First Survey
• 2.9 Original Technological Methods of Boundary Creation Not Relatable to Modern Methods
• 2.10 Original Lines May Be Redescribed As a Result of a Retracement
• 2.11 Conclusions
• Notes
• Chapter 3: Ownership, Transfer, and Description of Real Property and Accompanying Rights
• 3.1 Concepts of Boundaries, Land Ownership, and Land Descriptions
• 3.2 Overview of Boundaries
• Metes and Bounds Creation
• GLO Creation
• 3.3 Public and Private Lands
• 3.4 Sources of Title
• 3.5 Voluntary Transfer of Real Property
• 3.6 Chain of Title
• 3.7 Torrens Title System
• 3.8 Unwritten Rights or Title to Land
• 3.9 Methods of Voluntary Transfer of Title
• 3.10 Deed or Description
• 3.11 Title or Lien
• 3.12 Deed of Trust
• 3.13 Mortgage
• 3.14 Escrow
• 3.15 Title Assurance and Title Insurance
• 3.16 Abstractors
• 3.17 Attorney’s Opinion
• 3.18 General Land Descriptions
• 3.19 What Is in a description?
• 3.20 Measurements
• 3.21 Magnetic Directions
• 3.22 Reference Datums
• 3.23 Elements of Land Descriptions
• 3.24 Types of Descriptions
• 3.25 Conclusions
• Notes
• Chapter 4: Boundaries, Law, and Related Presumptions
• 4.1 Introduction
• 4.2 Constitutional Law and the Surveyor
• 4.3 Jurisdiction
• 4.4 Federal Jurisdiction
• 4.5 Federal Government, Agency, or Officer as a Party
• 4.6 Sovereign Immunity
• 4.7 United States as a Defendant
• 4.8 Disposing of Federal Lands
• 4.9 Color of Title Act
• 4.10 Public Law 120
• 4.11 Small Tracts Act
• 4.12 Researching the Laws
• 4.13 Court Reports
• 4.14 Legal Research
• 4.15 Judicial Notice
• 4.16 Evidence
• 4.17 Presumptions
• Definition
• 4.18 Common Presumptions
• 4.19 Survey Systems Present in the United States
• 4.20 Conclusions
• References
• Notes
• Chapter 5: Creation and Interpretation of Metes and Bounds and Other Nonsectionalized Descriptions
• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.2 Methods of Creating Metes and Bounds or Nonsectionalized Descriptions
• 5.3 Metes Descriptions
• 5.4 Bounds Descriptions
• 5.5 Combination Metes and Bounds Descriptions
• 5.6 Strip Descriptions and Stationing
• 5.7 Descriptions by Reference
• 5.8 Aliquot Descriptions
• 5.9 Other Means of Creating Boundaries in Descriptions
• Division Line Description
• Distance Description
• Proportional Conveyance Description
• Exception Description
• Area Description
• “Of” Description
• 5.10 Nomenclature in Metes and Bounds Descriptions
• Direction of Travel
• Measurements of Distance
• Monuments
• Record Monuments and Adjoiners
• Properties of Monuments
• 5.11 Adjoiners
• 5.12 Deed Terms for Curves
• Curves
• 5.13 Lines and Their Elements
• Lines
• Compass Direction
• Deflection Angle
• Interior and Exterior Angles
• Azimuth
• Compass Points
• Parallel Lines
• Coordinates
• Lambert and Mercator Grids
• 5.14 Tax Descriptions and Abbreviated Descriptions
• Tax Statements
• Abbreviated Descriptions
• 5.15 Subdivision Descriptions
• 5.16 Parcels Created by Protraction
• 5.17 Features of Platting Acts
• 5.18 Writing Land Descriptions
• 5.19 Early Surveys
• 5.20 Priority of Calls in Metes and Bounds Surveys
• 5.21 Applying Priority Calls
• Lines Actually Run
• Monuments Set
• Adjoining Parcels
• Area
• 5.22 Conclusions
• Notes
• Chapter 6: Creation and Retracement of GLO Boundaries
• 6.1 Introduction
• 6.2 Original Surveys and Corrective Surveys
• 6.3 Law, Manuals, and Special Instructions
• 6.4 Effect of Manuals on Resurveys
• 6.5 History of the Public Land Survey System
• 6.6 Testing Ground: The Seven Ranges
• Outline of the Provision of the Ordinance of May 20, 1785, the Northwest Ordinance
• 6.7 Act of May 18, 1796—Clarification of 1785
• Summary of the Act of 1796
• 6.8 Acts of 1800
• Act of March 1, 1800
• Act of May 10, 1800
• Structure of Sections
• 6.9 1803—The System Explodes
• 6.10 Act of March 26, 1804
• 6.11 Act of February 11, 1805
• 6.12 Land Surveys After 1805
• 6.13 Survey Instructions
• Tiffin’s Instructions
• General Instructions for Deputies
• 6.14 State Instructions and Statutes
• Act of March 3, 1811 (Louisiana)
• Louisiana Instructions and Statutes
• Half-Mile Posts: Alabama and Florida
• 6.15 Instruments Used
• 6.16 Field Notes
• 6.17 Nomenclature for Sections
• 6.18 Meandering
• 6.19 Resurveys and Retracements
• 6.20 Defective Boundaries Encountered in Resurveys
• 6.21 Sectionalized Surveys and Innovations
• 6.22 Irregular Original Government Subdivisions
• 6.23 Townships Other Than Regular
• 6.24 Summary of the GLO System
• Notes
• Chapter 7: Federal and State Nonsectionalized Land Surveys
• 7.1 Introduction
• 7.2 Early New England and Other Colonial-Era Surveys
• 7.3 Ohio Company of Associates
• 7.4 Donation Tract
• 7.5 Symmes Purchase
• 7.6 Virginia Military District
• 7.7 United States Military Tract
• 7.8 Connecticut Western Reserve and Firelands
• 7.9 Moravian Tracts
• 7.10 Florida Keys Survey
• 7.11 Donation Land Claims
• 7.12 Exchange Surveys and Their Status
• 7.13 Prior Land Grants from Foreign Governments
• 7.14 French Grants in the Louisiana Purchase
• 7.15 Mississippi Townships
• 7.16 Soldier’s Additional Homestead
• 7.17 Indian Allotment Surveys
• 7.18 National Forest Homestead Entry
• 7.19 Tennessee Townships
• 7.20 Florida: Forbes Company Purchase Surveys
• 7.21 Georgia Lot System
• Surveys in the Noncontinental United States
• 7.22 General Comments
• 7.23 Hawaiian Land Laws
• Hawaiian Land Titles
• Hawaiian Law and Kamaaina
• The Great Mahele of 1848
• Hawaiian Land Court
• Hawaiian Surveys
• Water Boundaries
• Adverse Possession
• 7.24 Puerto Rican Land Surveys
• Old Spanish Surveys
• Modern Land Subdivisions In Puerto Rico
• Natural Watercourses
• Land Parcel Research
• Survey Authority
• Preparation of Deeds and Descriptions
• Registration of Land Titles
• 7.25 Federal Mineral Surveys: General Comments
• 7.26 Water and Mineral Right Laws
• 7.27 Land Open to Appropriation of Minerals
• 7.28 Veins, Lodes, or Ledges
• 7.29 Extralateral and Intralimital Rights
• 7.30 Mill Sites
• 7.31 Tunnel Locations
• 7.32 Size of Claims
• 7.33 Discovery
• 7.34 Locations
• 7.35 Possession
• 7.36 Annual Expenditures
• 7.37 Requirements for Patent
• 7.38 United States Mineral Surveyors
• 7.39 Survey of the Claim
• 7.40 Conclusions
• Recommended Reading
• Notes
• Chapter 8: Locating Easements and Reversions
• 8.1 Introduction
• 8.2 Rights Granted
• 8.3 Fee Title or Easement Right
• 8.4 Three Easement Descriptions and Three Boundaries
• 8.5 Ownership of the Bed of Easements
• 8.6 Surveyor’s Responsibility as to Easements
• 8.7 Requirements for Locating Easements
• 8.8 Centerline Presumption
• 8.9 Conveyances with Private Way Boundaries
• 8.10 Use of Easements
• 8.11 Revival of Public Easements
• 8.12 Creation of Easement Boundaries
• 8.13 Dividing Private Street Ownership
• 8.14 Words Used in Centerline Conveyances
• 8.15 Apportioning Reversion Rights
• 8.16 General Principle of Reversion
• 8.17 Reversion Rights of a Lot on a Curved Street
• 8.18 Lots Adjoining Two Subdivision Boundaries
• 8.19 Lots at an Angle Point in a Road
• 8.20 Indeterminate Situations
• 8.21 Exceptions to the Rules of Apportionment
• 8.22 Describing Vacated Streets and Easements
• 8.23 Litigating Easements
• 8.24 Conclusions
• Notes
• Chapter 9: Riparian and Littoral Boundaries
• 9.1 Introduction
• 9.2 Ownership of the Seas
• 9.3 Ownership of the U.S. Territorial Sea
• Federal Claims
• State Claims
• 9.4 Ownership of Interior Tidal Waters of the United States
• 9.5 Landward Boundary of Tidal Waters
• General Anglo-American Common Law
• Exceptions Based on Massachusetts Colonial Ordinance
• Exceptions Based on Civil Law
• 9.6 Ownership of Nontidal Navigable Waters
• 9.7 Landward Boundaries of Nontidal Waters
• 9.8 Significance of Public Land Survey Meander Lines
• 9.9 Ownership of Non–Publicly Owned Submerged Lands
• 9.10 Swamp and Overflowed Lands
• 9.11 Navigational Servitude
• 9.12 Public Regulation of Riparian and Littoral Lands
• 9.13 Shoreline Changes and Water Boundaries
• 9.14 Apportionment of Riparian and Littoral Rights
• 9.15 Emergent or Omitted Islands
• 9.16 Water Boundaries other Than Sea
• 9.17 Major Recognized Areas
• 9.18 Conclusions and Recommendations
• Notes
• Chapter 10: Retracing and “Resurveying” Sectionalized Lands
• 10.1 Introduction
• 10.2 Areas of Authority
• 10.3 Resurvey or Retracement
• 10.4 Types of Surveys and Resurveys
• 10.5 Court of Proper Jurisdiction
• 10.6 Federal Patents
• 10.7 Intent of the Government
• 10.8 Senior Rights
• 10.9 Following the Footsteps
• 10.10 Lines Marked and Surveyed
• 10.11 Original Corners
• 10.12 Original Field Notes and Plats
• 10.13 Closing Corners
• 10.14 Identification of Corners and Lines
• 10.15 Monuments and Their Identification
• 10.16 Evidence of Corners
• 10.17 Use of Testimony in Boundaries
• 10.18 Common Usage
• 10.19 Using Recorded Information to Locate Original Lines
• 10.20 Proportioning: The Last Resort
• 10.21 Relocating Lost Corners
• 10.22 Proportionate Measure or Proration
• 10.23 Single Proportionate Measurement
• 10.24 Double Proportionate Measurement
• 10.25 Restoration of Lost Standard Corners on Standard Parallels, Correction Lines, and Baselines
• 10.26 Restoration of Lost Township Corners on Principal Meridians and Guide Meridians
• 10.27 Restoration of Lost Township and Section Corners Originally Established with Cross-Ties in Fou
• 10.28 Restoration of Lost Corners Along Township Lines
• 10.29 Restoration of Lost Township and Section Corners Where the Line Was Not Established in one Dir
• 10.30 Restoration of Lost Corners Where the Intersecting Lines Have Been Established in Only Two Dir
• 10.31 Restoration of Quarter-Section Corners in Regular Sections
• 10.32 Restoration of Quarter-Section Corners Where Only Part of a Section Was Surveyed Originally
• 10.33 Restoration of a Closing Section Corner on a Standard Parallel
• 10.34 Restoration of a Lost North Quarter Corner in a Closing Section
• 10.35 Restoration of Lost Nonriparian Meander Corners
• 10.36 Restoration of Riparian Meander Lines
• 10.37 Restoration of Nonriparian Meander Lines
• 10.38 Restoration of Irregular Exteriors
• 10.39 Lost Corner Restoration Methods
• 10.40 Resurvey Instructions Issued in 1879 and 1883
• 10.41 Half-Mile Posts in Florida and Alabama
• Subdivision of Sections
• 10.42 General Comments
• 10.43 Subdivision by Protraction
• 10.44 Establishing the North Quarter Corner of Closing Sections on a Standard Parallel and Other Qu
• 10.45 Establishment of Centerlines and Center Quarter Corners
• 10.46 Establishment of Quarter-Quarter Section Lines and Corners
• 10.47 Fractional Sections Centerline
• 10.48 Senior Right of Lines
• 10.49 Gross Errors and Erroneously Omitted Areas
• 10.50 Relocating Corners from Other Townships or from Interior Corners
• 10.51 Procedures for Conducting Retracements
• 10.52 Interpretation of Aliquot Descriptions
• 10.53 According to the Government Measure
• Differences Between State and Federal Interpretations
• 10.54 Applying State Laws
• Missouri Statute Law
• Wisconsin Law
• 10.55 Topography
• 10.56 Boundaries by Area
• 10.57 Establishing Corners
• 10.58 Sections Created under State Jurisdiction
• 10.59 Presumptions and Realities for GLO Surveys
• 10.60 Conclusions
• Notes
• Chapter 11: Locating Sequential Conveyances
• 11.1 Introduction
• 11.2 Definition of Sequential Conveyances
• 11.3 Simultaneous Conveyances
• 11.4 Possession
• 11.5 Sequential Patents
• 11.6 Importance of Knowledge
• 11.7 Junior and Senior Rights between Private Parties
• 11.8 Deeds Must Be in Writing and Deemed to Be Whole
• Limitations on the Principle
• 11.9 Direction of the Survey
• 11.10 Terms of the Deed
• 11.11 Call for a Plat
• Limitations on the Principle
• 11.12 Informative and Controlling Terms
• Order of Importance of Conflicting Title Elements
• 11.13 General Comments
• Order of Importance of Conflicting Elements That Determine Land and Boundary Location
• 11.14 Senior Rights
• 11.15 Call for an Adjoiner
• 11.16 Written Intentions of the Parties to the Deed
• Exception to the Principles of Intent
• 11.17 Aids to Interpret the Intent of a Deed
• General Acceptation of Terms
• Least Likely Mistake
• Date of Execution
• 11.18 Control of Unwritten Title Lines
• 11.19 Lines Marked and Surveyed
• Limitations on the Principle
• 11.20 Corner Definitions
• 11.21 Control of Monuments
• Limitations on the Principle
• Control of Monuments Shown on a Reference Plat
• Obliterated Monuments
• 11.22 Control between Conflicting Monuments
• 11.23 Explanation of the Principles
• Natural Monuments
• Artificial Monuments
• Record and Artificial Monuments
• Uncalled-for Monuments and Boundary Improvements
• 11.24 Importance of the Word “To”
• 11.25 Dignity of Record Monuments
• 11.26 Control Point of a Monument
• 11.27 Uncalled-For Monuments
• 11.28 Error or Mistake in a Description
• 11.29 Control of Bearing and Distance
• 11.30 Control of Either Bearing or Distance
• Control by Direction
• Control of Distance other
• Error Placed in the Last Course
• 11.31 Distribution of Errors in Several Boundary Lines
• 11.32 Cardinal Directions
• 11.33 Unrestricted General Terms
• 11.34 Direction of Survey
• 11.35 Area or Surface
• 11.36 Point of Beginning
• 11.37 Construed Most Strongly against Grantor
• 11.38 Errors and Ambiguous Terms
• 11.39 Coordinates
• 11.40 Direct Line Measurement
• 11.41 Treatment of Curves
• 11.42 First Stated Conditions
• 11.43 Written and Character Numbers
• 11.44 Unit Implied
• 11.45 Feet and Inches
• 11.46 General and Particular Provisions
• Basis of Bearings
• 11.47 Deflection Method versus Compass Bearings
• Compass Bearings
• 11.48 Summary, Interpretation of the Principles, and Conclusion
• References
• Notes
• Chapter 12: Locating Simultaneously Created Boundaries
• 12.1 Introduction
• 12.2 Defining Subdivisions
• Subdivision Boundaries and Corners
• 12.3 Aliquot Part Subdivision
• 12.4 Controlling Boundaries
• 12.5 Subdivision Macro Boundary Wrongly Monumented
• Limitations on the Principle
• 12.6 Subdivision Boundaries Incorrectly Described
• Conflicting Elements in Descriptions
• 12.7 General Comments
• 12.8 Original Method of Creating Lots
• 12.9 Intention of the Parties
• 12.10 Finality of Original Lines
• Limitations on the Principle
• 12.11 Control of Original Monuments within Subdivision Boundaries
• 12.12 Title Monuments
• 12.13 Control of Monuments Over Plats
• 12.14 Certainty of Monument Identification
• 12.15 Record Description of Monuments
• 12.16 Principles for Presumed Control Between Conflicting Monuments within Subdivisions
• 12.17 Explaining Principles
• Control of Artificial Monuments
• Meander Lines
• Uncalled-for Monuments
• Common Report
• Improvements as Monuments
• 12.18 Introduction to Proportioning
• Establishment of Streets
• 12.19 General Comments
• 12.20 Establishment of Streets by Natural Monuments
• 12.21 Establishment of Streets and Alleys by Artificial Monuments and Lines Actually Run at the Tim
• 12.22 Establishment of Streets by Improvements
• 12.23 Establishment of Streets by the Line of a Nearby Street
• 12.24 Establishment of Streets by Plat
• Measurement Index
• 12.25 Establishment of Streets Where Width Is Not Given
• 12.26 Establishment of Streets by City Engineers’ Monuments
• Establishment of Lots within Subdivisions
• 12.27 Effect of Mathematical Error
• 12.28 Excess or Deficiency
• 12.29 Proration: A Rule of Last Resort
• 12.30 Excess or Deficiency Confined to a Block
• 12.31 Excess or Deficiency Distribution within Blocks
• 12.32 Single Proportionate Measure
• 12.33 Single Proportionate Measure on Curves
• 12.34 Distribution of Excess and Deficiency Beyond a Monument
• 12.35 Establishment of Lots Where the End Lot Measurement Is Not Given
• 12.36 Remnant Principle
• 12.37 Establishment of Lots Where No Lot measurement Is Given
• 12.38 Establishment of Lots with Area Only Given
• 12.39 New York Rule For Establishment of Lots
• 12.40 Summary of Proration Rules
• 12.41 Establishment of Lots Adjoining Subdivision Boundaries
• 12.42 Establishment of Lots Adjoining a Subdivision Correctly Established
• 12.43 Establishment of Lots Overlapping the True Subdivision Boundaries
• Limitations on the Principle
• 12.44 Establishment of Lots Not Touching the True Boundary of the Subdivision
• Limitations on the Principle
• 12.45 Proration of Excess and Deficiency in Blocks Closing on Subdivision Boundaries
• 12.46 Locating Lots from Boundary Lines
• Limitations on the Principle
• 12.47 Obliterated and Lost Subdivisions
• Proceedings in Partition
• 12.48 General Comments
• 12.49 Establishment of Lines Determined by Proceedings in Partition
• 12.50 Establishment of Boundaries of Allottees of Wills
• 12.51 Deed Divisions
• 12.52 Comments
• Notes
• Chapter 13: Locating Combination Descriptions and Conveyances
• 13.1 Introduction
• “Of” Descriptions
• 13.2 “Of,” “In,” and “At” Descriptions within Subdivisions and Adjoining Streets
• 13.3 “Of” Descriptions within Metes and Bounds Descriptions and Adjoining Streets
• 13.4 Direction of Measurement
• 13.5 Proportional “Of” Conveyance
• 13.6 Exception by One-Half by Area
• 13.7 Indeterminate Proportional Conveyances
• 13.8 Angular Direction of the Dividing Line in “Of” Descriptions
• Nonparallel Lines
• East Half of Lot and the Lot Except the East Half
• 13.9 Acreage “Of” Descriptions
• 13.10 Ambiguity
• Overlaps and Gaps
• 13.11 Calls from Two Directions
• Establishment of Property Described by Both Metes and Bounds and Subdivision Descriptions
• 13.12 Double Descriptions
• 13.13 New York Double Descriptions
• 13.14 Natural Phenomena and Boundaries
• Changes Due to Water
• Changes Due to Wind
• Changes Due to Earthquakes
• Changes Caused by Tsunamis
• Landslides and Earth Flows
• Subsidence
• Volcanoes
• Glaciers
• Fire
• Secondary Events
• 13.15 Recognition of Past Events
• Notes
• Chapter 14: Role of the Surveyor
• 14.1 Introduction
• 14.2 Function of the Surveyor
• 14.3 Opinions of Fact and Applications of Law
• 14.4 Establishment of Boundaries
• 14.5 Establishment in Louisiana
• Private Surveys
• 14.6 Responsibility and Authority of the Surveyor
• 14.7 Basis of a Boundary Survey
• 14.8 How Much Research?
• 14.9 Ownership
• 14.10 Encroachments
• 14.11 Searching for Monuments
• 14.12 Possession Marking Original Survey Lines
• 14.13 Evidence
• 14.14 Setting Monuments
• 14.15 Plats
• 14.16 Liability
• 14.17 Conclusion
• Notes
• Chapter 15: The Ethics and Moral Responsibilities of Boundary Creation and of Retracements
• 15.1 Introduction
• 15.2 The Philosophy of Boundaries
• 15.3 Applying the Principles to Creating and Retracing Boundaries
• 15.4 Final Comments
• Notes
• Glossary of Terms
• Index
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