Efnisyfirlit

• Contents
• Figures
• Tables
• Preface
• Abbreviations
• Part I: The cognitive linguistics enterprise
• 1 What do cognitive linguists study?
• 1 What is language for?
• 1.1 The symbolic function of language
• 1.2 The interactive function of language
• 2 The systematic structure of language
• 2.1 Evidence for a system
• 2.2 The systematic structure of thought
• 3 What do cognitive linguists do?
• 3.1 What?
• 3.2 Why?
• 3.3 How?
• 3.4 Speaker intuitions
• 3.5 Converging evidence
• 4 What it means to know a language (from the perspective of cognitive linguistics)
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 2 Key commitments and research methods
• 1 Two key commitments
• 2 The Generalisation Commitment
• 2.1 Categorisation
• 2.1.1 Categorisation in morphology: the diminutive in Italian
• 2.1.2 Categorisation in syntax: ‘parts of speech’
• 2.1.3 Categorisation in phonology: distinctive features
• 2.2 Polysemy
• 2.2.1 Polysemy in the lexicon: over
• 2.2.2 Polysemy in morphology: agentive -er suffix
• 2.2.3 Polysemy in syntax: ditransitive construction
• 2.3 Metaphor
• 2.3.1 Metaphor in the lexicon: over (again)
• 2.3.2 Metaphor in syntax: the ditransitive (again)
• 3 The Cognitive Commitment
• 3.1 Attention: profiling in language
• 3.2 Categorisation: fuzzy categories
• 3.3 Metaphor
• 4 Research methods
• 4.1 Phenomena studied by cognitive linguistics
• 4.2 Research methods in cognitive linguistics
• 4.2.1 Introspective method
• 4.2.2 Audio-visual method
• 4.2.3 Corpus method
• 4.2.4 Behavioural method
• 4.2.5 Neuroscientific method
• 5 The field of cognitive linguistics
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 3 Foundations of experience I: space
• 1 Spatial perception
• 1.1 Three stages of perception
• 1.2 Percepts versus concepts
• 1.3 Types of perceptual experience
• 1.4 How do percepts arise?
• 1.5 Bottom-up theories
• 1.5.1 Texture perception
• 1.5.2 Object perception
• 1.6 Top-down theories: form perception
• 1.6.1 Figure–ground organisation
• 1.6.2 Gestalt grouping principles
• 2 Linguistic reflexes of perceptual experience
• 2.1 ‘What’ versus ‘where’ systems in perception and language
• 2.2 Figure–ground segregation in perception and language
• 3 Spatial representation in language
• 3.1 The nature of spatial schemas
• 3.1.1 Spatio-geometric components
• 3.1.2 Properties of components
• 3.1.3 Relations between components
• 3.2 The functional nature of spatial schemas
• 3.3 Spatial frames of reference
• 3.3.1 Case study: Talmy’s taxonomy of s-FoRs
• 4 Cross-linguistic variation in the representation of space
• 4.1 Categorising spatial scenes in English and Korean
• 4.2 S-FoRs in Guugu Yimithirr
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 4 Foundations of experience II: time
• 1 Temporal perception
• 1.1 The subjective reality of time
• 1.1.1 Experience of events
• 1.1.2 Vital functioning
• 1.1.3 Individual factors
• 1.2 Facets of temporal experience
• 1.2.1 Parameters for comparing space and time
• 1.2.2 A taxonomy of temporal experience types
• 2 Linguistic representations for time
• 2.1 The spatialisation of time
• 2.1.1 Time is space
• 2.1.2 Experimental evidence
• 2.1.3 Further developments
• 2.2 Lexical concepts for time
• 2.2.1 Time
• 2.2.2 Temporal aspects of an event: Christmas
• 2.3 Temporal frames of reference
• 2.3.1 The spatial basis of t-FoRs
• 2.3.2 The temporal basis of t-FoRs
• 3 Cross-linguistic patterns in the conceptualisation of time
• 3.1 The past and future in Aymara
• 3.2 Earlier and later in Mandarin
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 5 Language in use I: knowledge of language
• 1 Language in use
• 1.1 A usage event
• 1.2 The relationship between usage and linguistic structure
• 1.3 Comprehension and production
• 1.4 Context
• 1.5 Frequency
• 2 Cognitive Grammar
• 2.1 Abstraction, schematisation and language use
• 2.2 Schemas and their instantiations
• 2.3 Partial sanction
• 2.4 The non-reductive nature of schemas
• 2.5 Frequency in schema formation
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 6 Language in use II: language change,and acquisition
• 1 A usage-based approach to language change
• 1.1 Historical linguistics and language change
• 1.2 The utterance selection theory of language change
• 1.3 The generalised theory of selection and the theory of utterance selection
• 1.4 Causal mechanisms for language change
• 1.4.1 Normal replication
• 1.4.2 Intentional altered replication
• 1.4.3 Non-intentional altered replication
• 1.4.4 Selection
• 1.5 Causal mechanisms of language stability and change
• 2 The usage-based approach to language acquisition
• 2.1 Empirical findings in language acquisition
• 2.2 The cognitive view: sociocognitive mechanisms in language acquisition
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 7 Key topics in language science: formal versus cognitive linguistics
• 1 Language origins and time depth
• 1.1 The received view of human evolution
• 1.2 How old is language?
• 1.3 What motivated the rise of language?
• 1.4 Stages in language evolution
• 2 Language universals
• 2.1 The Universal Grammar approach
• 2.1.1 The falsifiability problem
• 2.1.2 The methodological problem
• 2.1.3 The abstractness problem
• 2.2 The cognitive linguistics approach
• 2.2.1 Human interactional intelligence
• 2.2.2 Universal scenes of experience
• 3 Language acquisition
• 3.1 The rise of the nativist approach to L1 acquisition
• 3.2 The cognitive linguistics critique
• 3.2.1 Problem of absence of discontinuous learning jumps
• 3.2.2 Problem of absence of evidence not implying evidence of absence
• 3.2.3 Problem of findings from neurobiology
• 4 Modularity of mind
• 4.1 Double dissociations
• 4.2 Localisation of language
• 4.3 The cognitive linguistics critique
• 5 Semantic universals
• 5.1 The semantic decomposition approach
• 5.2 The cognitive linguistics critique
• 6 Language and thought
• 6.1 Strong versus weak versions of linguistic relativity
• 6.2 The cognitive linguistics perspective
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• Part II: Conceptual structure
• 8 What is a cognitive linguistics approach to conceptual structure?
• 1 Guiding principles
• 1.1 Conceptual structure is embodied
• 1.2 Semantic structure reflects conceptual structure
• 2 Comparing and contrasting approaches to conceptualstructure
• 2.1 Two views of concepts and the mind
• 2.1.1 Disembodied cognition
• 2.1.2 Embodied cognition
• 2.1.3 Embodied versus disembodied cognition perspectives
• 2.2 The symbol grounding problem
• 2.3 Evidence for the embodied cognition perspective
• 2.4 Experiential realism
• 3 Embodiment effects in semantic structure
• 3.1 Types of embodiment effects
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 9 Image schemas and the origin of concepts
• 1 The origin of concepts
• 1.1 Perceptual meaning analysis
• 1.2 The nature of a child’s first concepts
• 1.3 The embodied basis of conceptual structure
• 2 Image schema theory
• 2.1 What is an image schema?
• 2.2 An example
• 3 Properties of image schemas
• 3.1 Image schemas are pre-conceptual in origin
• 3.2 An image schema can give rise to more specific concepts
• 3.3 Image schemas derive from interaction with and observationof the world
• 3.4 Image schemas are inherently meaningful
• 3.5 Image schemas are analogue representations
• 3.6 Image schemas can be internally complex
• 3.7 Image schemas are not the same as mental images
• 3.8 Image schemas are multimodal
• 3.9 Image schemas are subject to transformations
• 3.10 Image schemas can occur in clusters
• 3.11 Image schemas underlie linguistic meaning
• 3.12 Image schemas give rise to abstract thought
• 3.13 A partial list of image schemas
• 4 Refining image schema theory
• 4.1 Spatial primitives
• 4.2 Image schemas
• 4.3 Schematic integrations
• 5 Mimetic schemas
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 10 Cognitive Semantics
• 1 Semantic structure
• 2 The configuration of space and time
• 2.1 time versus space
• 2.2 Conceptual alternativity
• 3 Schematic systems
• 3.1 The Configurational Structure system
• 3.1.1 Overview
• 3.1.2 Plexity
• 3.1.3 Boundedness
• 3.1.4 Dividedness
• 3.1.5 Disposition of quantity
• 3.1.6 Degree of extension
• 3.1.7 Patterns of distribution
• 3.1.8 Axiality
• 3.2 The Attentional System
• 3.2.1 Overview
• 3.2.2 Focus of attention pattern
• 3.2.3 Windowing pattern
• 3.2.4 Level of attention pattern
• 3.3 The Perspectival System
• 3.3.1 Overview
• 3.3.2 Perspectival location
• 3.3.3 Perspectival distance
• 3.3.4 Perspectival mode
• 3.3.5 Perspectival direction
• 3.4 The Force-Dynamics System
• 3.4.1 Overview
• 3.4.2 Types of force
• 3.4.3 Antagonist versus agonist
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 11 Categorisation and idealised cognitive models
• 1 A new approach to categorisation and the development of cognitive linguistics
• 2 The classical theory
• 2.1 The definitional problem
• 2.2 The problem of conceptual fuzziness
• 2.3 The problem of prototypicality
• 2.4 Further problems
• 3 Prototype theory
• 3.1 Principles of categorisation
• 3.1.1 Principle of cognitive economy
• 3.1.2 Principle of perceived world structure
• 3.2 The categorisation system
• 3.3 The vertical dimension
• 3.3.1 Attributes
• 3.3.2 Motor movements
• 3.3.3 Similarity of shapes
• 3.3.4 Identification based on averaged shapes
• 3.3.5 Cognitive economy versus level of detail
• 3.3.6 Perceptual salience
• 3.3.7 Language acquisition
• 3.3.8 Basic-level terms in language
• 3.3.9 Are basic-level categories universal?
• 3.4 The horizontal dimension
• 3.4.1 Goodness-of-example ratings
• 3.4.2 Family resemblance
• 3.5 Problems with prototype theory
• 4 The theory of idealised cognitive models
• 4.1 Sources of typicality effects
• 4.1.1 The simplest type of typicality effects
• 4.1.2 Typicality effects due to cluster models
• 4.1.3 Typicality effects due to metonymy
• 4.1.4 Radial ICMs as a further source of typicality effects
• 4.2 H ow the theory of ICMs resolves problems with prototype theory
• 4.3 The structure of ICMs
• 4.3.1 Image schematic ICMs
• 4.3.2 Propositional ICMs
• 4.3.3 Metaphoric ICMs
• 4.3.4 Metonymic ICMs
• 4.3.5 Symbolic ICMs
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 12 Conceptual metaphor theory
• 1 Literal versus figurative language
• 1.1 Literal and figurative language as complex concepts
• 1.1.1 Definitions of literal language
• 1.1.2 Definitions of non-literal language
• 1.2 Can the distinction be maintained?
• 1.2.1 Conventional versus non-conventional language use
• 1.2.2 Metaphorical versus non-metaphorical language use
• 1.2.3 Literal truth versus literal falsity in language use
• 1.2.4 Context-free versus context-dependent language use
• 2 What is metaphor?
• 2.1 The traditional view
• 2.2 Conceptual metaphor
• 2.2.1 Source versus target domains
• 2.2.2 The experiential basis of conceptual metaphors
• 3 Conceptual metaphor theory
• 3.1 The unidirectionality of metaphor
• 3.2 Motivation for target and source
• 3.3 Metaphorical entailments
• 3.4 Metaphor systems
• 3.5 Metaphors and image schemas
• 3.6 Invariance
• 3.7 The conceptual nature of metaphor
• 3.8 H iding and highlighting
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 13 Primary metaphors and conceptualmetonymy
• 1 A primary metaphor account of conceptual metaphors
• 1.1 Three problems for conceptual metaphor theory
• 1.2 Towards a decompositional account of conceptual metaphors
• 1.2.1 The grounding problem for theories are buildings
• 1.2.2 A decompositional account of theories are buildings
• 1.3 Properties of primary conceptual metaphors
• 1.3.1 Primary metaphors are directly grounded in experience, in primaryscenes
• 1.3.2 Subscenes are linked in primary metaphors by necessary and sufficient conditions
• 1.3.3 Primary source and target concepts are simple
• 1.3.4 Primary metaphors are universal
• 1.3.5 The distinction between a source and target concerns a qualitative distinction between image a
• 1.3.6 Mappings between source and target, in primary metaphors, areasymmetric
• 1.3.7 Primary conceptual metaphors constitute ‘one shot’ mappings between concepts across differ
• 1.4 Consequences of primary metaphor theory
• 2 Conceptual metonymy
• 2.1 What is metonymy?
• 2.2 The conceptual basis of metonymy
• 2.3 Conceptual metonymy as a domain highlighting operation
• 2.4 Different metonymic phenomena
• 2.5 Metonymy–metaphor interaction
• 2.5.1 Metaphtonymy
• 2.5.2 The metonymic basis of metaphor
• 2.6 A typology of conceptual metonymy
• 2.6.1 Motivating relationships for metonymies
• 2.6.2 Vehicles for metonymy
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• Part III: Semantic structure
• 14 What is a cognitive linguistics approach to semantic structure?
• 1 Guiding principles
• 1.1 Semantic structure is encyclopaedic
• 1.1.1 An example
• 1.1.2 The process of activating encyclopaedic knowledge: construal
• 1.2 Meaning construction entails simulations
• 1.2.1 An example
• 1.2.2 The role of language in meaning construction
• 2 Formal Semantics
• 2.1 Meaning, truth and reality
• 2.1.1 Object language versus metalanguage
• 2.1.2 The inconsistency of natural language
• 2.1.3 Sentences and propositions
• 2.2 Truth-conditional semantics and formal linguistics
• 2.2.1 Compositionality of meaning
• 2.2.2 Translating natural language into a metalanguage
• 2.2.3 Semantic interpretation and matching
• 3 Comparison with the cognitive linguistics approachto semantic structure
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 15 The encyclopaedic approach to semantic structure I: overview
• 1 The dictionary view of linguistic meaning
• 1.1 The characteristics of the dictionary view
• 1.2 A case study in pragmatics: relevance theory
• 1.3 Problems with the dictionary view
• 2 The encyclopaedic view of linguistic meaning
• 2.1 No principled distinction between semantics and pragmatics
• 2.2 Encyclopaedic knowledge is structured
• 2.2.1 Conventional knowledge
• 2.2.2 Generic knowledge
• 2.2.3 Intrinsic knowledge
• 2.2.4 Characteristic knowledge
• 2.2.5 Four continua
• 2.2.6 Centrality
• 2.3 There is a distinction between encyclopaedic knowledge andcontextual information
• 2.4 Lexical expressions facilitate access to encyclopaedic knowledge
• 2.5 Encyclopaedic knowledge is dynamic
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 16 The encyclopaedic approach to semantic structure II: two theories
• 1 Frame Semantics
• 1.1 What is a semantic frame?
• 1.2 Frames in cognitive psychology
• 1.2.1 Attributes and values
• 1.2.2 Structural invariants
• 1.2.3 Simulations
• 1.3 The commercial event frame
• 1.4 Speech event frames
• 1.5 Consequences of adopting a frame-based model
• 1.5.1 Words and categories are dependent on frames
• 1.5.2 Frames provide a particular perspective
• 1.5.3 Scene-structuring frames
• 1.5.4 Alternate framing of a single situation
• 2 Cognitive Grammar and the theory of domains
• 2.1 What is a domain?
• 2.2 Basic versus abstract domains
• 2.3 Other characteristics of domains
• 2.3.1 Dimensionality
• 2.3.2 Locational versus configurational domains
• 2.4 Deploying domains in the service of linguistically mediated meaning
• 2.4.1 Profile/base organisation
• 2.4.2 Active zones
• 2.5 Construal
• 2.5.1 Selection
• 2.5.2 Perspective
• 2.5.3 Abstraction
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 17 Network approaches to semantic structure
• 1 Lexical versus compositional semantics: a false dichotomy
• 1.1 Word meaning is protean in nature
• 1.2 The conceptual nature of meaning construction
• 1.3 Grammatical constructions are independently meaningful
• 2 Words as radial categories
• 2.1 The nature of polysemy
• 2.2 The polysemy approach to over
• 2.3 Lakoff’s full-specification approach
• 2.3.1 Image schema transformations
• 2.3.2 Metaphorical extensions
• 2.4 Problems with the full-specification approach
• 2.4.1 Polysemy and vagueness: the role of context
• 2.4.2 The polysemy fallacy: unconstrained methodology
• 2.5 The Principled Polysemy approach
• 2.5.1 Distinguishing between senses
• 2.5.2 Establishing the prototypical sense
• 2.5.3 Illustration of a radial category based on Principled Polysemy
• 2.5.4 Beyond prepositions
• 2.6 Criticisms of principled polysemy
• 3 Langacker’s network conception
• 3.1 Schemas versus instances
• 3.2 The network model
• 4 The importance of context for polysemy
• 4.1 Usage context: subsenses
• 4.2. Sentential context: facets
• 4.3 Knowledge context: ways of seeing
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 18 Access Semantics and meaning construction
• 1 Design features for meaning construction
• 1.1 Language employs two qualitatively distinct types of reference
• 1.2 Semantic structure, encoded by linguistic referential vehicles, relates to knowledge of two qual
• 2 The linguistic focus hypothesis
• 3 The architecture of Access Semantics
• 3.1 Semantic representation in Access Semantics
• 3.1.1 Lexical concepts
• 3.1.2 cognitive models
• 3.2 The cognitive model profile
• 3.2.1 An example: [france]
• 3.2.2 Primary versus secondary cognitive models
• 3.2.3 Access site
• 3.2.4 The individual nature of cognitive model profiles
• 3.3 Semantic composition
• 3.4 Interpretation
• 3.4.1 An example of interpretation
• 3.4.2 Constraints
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 19 Mental spaces and discourse meaning
• 1 Key assumptions of mental spaces theory
• 1.1 Formal Semantics revisited
• 1.2 The nature of meaning in mental spaces theory
• 1.3 An overview of mental spaces theory
• 1.3.1 The lenient father interpretation
• 1.3.2 The stern father interpretation
• 1.3.3 The role interpretation
• 1.3.4 Discussion
• 2 The architecture of mental space construction
• 2.1 Space builders
• 2.2 Elements
• 2.3 Properties and relations
• 2.4 Mental space lattices
• 2.5 Counterparts and connectors
• 2.6 The Access Principle
• 2.7 Roles and values
• 3 An illustration of mental space construction
• 4 The dynamic nature of meaning construction
• 4.1 Tense and aspect in English
• 4.2 The tense–aspect system in mental spaces theory
• 4.3 Epistemic distance
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 20 Conceptual blending and semantic creativity
• 1 The origins of blending theory
• 1.1 Problem 1: metaphor
• 1.2 Problem 2: counterfactual disanalogies
• 2 Towards a theory of conceptual integration
• 2.1 The nature of integration networks
• 2.2 That surgeon is a butcher: the blending theory account
• 2.3 Bill Clinton as French President: the blending theory account
• 3 The nature of blending
• 3.1 The elements of conceptual blending
• 3.2 Further linguistic examples
• 3.2.1 Boat race
• 3.2.2 XYZ constructions
• 3.2.3 Formal blends
• 3.2.4 Non-linguistic examples
• 4 Vital relations and compressions
• 4.1 Vital relations
• 4.2 A taxonomy of vital relations and their compressions
• 4.2.1 time
• 4.2.2 space
• 4.2.3 representation
• 4.2.4 change
• 4.2.5 role–value
• 4.2.6 analogy
• 4.2.7 disanalogy
• 4.2.8 part-whole
• 4.2.9 cause–effect
• 4.3 Disintegration and decompression
• 5 A taxonomy of integration networks
• 5.1 Simplex networks
• 5.2 Mirror networks
• 5.3 Single-scope networks
• 5.4 Double-scope networks
• 6 Multiple blending
• 7 Constraining blending theory
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• Part IV: Grammar
• 21 What is a cognitive linguistics approach to grammar?
• 1 Guiding principles
• 1.1 The symbolic thesis
• 1.2 The usage-based thesis
• 2 Formal approaches to grammar
• 2.1 Background: the rise of Transformational Grammar
• 2.2 Assumptions of Transformational Grammar
• 2.3 The nature of Transformational Grammar
• 3 Comparison with cognitive linguistics approaches to grammar
• 3.1 Lexicon–grammar continuum versus autonomous syntax
• 3.2 Inventory versus derivational system
• 3.3 The status of constructions
• 3.4 Schemas versus rules
• 3.5 Redundancy versus economy
• 3.6 Conventionality versus regularity
• 3.7 ‘Scaffolding’ versus ‘building blocks’
• 3.8 Constraints on models of grammar
• 3.9 Sanctioning and grammaticality
• 3.10 Emphasis on formalism
• 4 Three cognitive linguistics approaches to grammar
• 4.1 Cognitive Grammar
• 4.2 Construction Grammars
• 4.3 Cognitive linguistics theories of grammaticalisation
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 22 Cognitive Grammar I: lexical classes
• 1 The semantic basis of word classes
• 2 Nominal predications: nouns
• 2.1 Bounding
• 2.2 Homogeneity versus heterogeneity
• 2.3 Expansibility and contractibility versus replicability
• 2.4 Abstract nouns
• 3 Nominal versus relational predications
• 4 Relational predications: temporal versus atemporal relations
• 4.1 Temporal relations: verbs
• 4.1.1 Simple and complex temporal relations
• 4.2 Atemporal relations
• 4.2.1 Simple and complex atemporal relations
• 4.2.2 Adjectives and adverbs
• 4.2.3 Adpositions
• 4.2.4 Participles
• 4.2.5 Infinitives
• 5 Lexical classes: an overview
• 6 Nominal grounding predications
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 23 Cognitive Grammar II: constructions
• 1 Constituency in symbolic units
• 2 Phrases as constructions
• 2.1 Heads and dependents
• 2.2 Correspondence
• 2.3 Profile determinacy
• 2.4 Conceptual autonomy versus conceptual dependence
• 2.4.1 Complements
• 2.4.2 Modifiers
• 2.4.3 Comparison with dependency in formal linguistics
• 2.5 Constituency
• 2.6 The prototypical grammatical construction
• 3 Words as constructions
• 3.1 Phonological autonomy and dependence
• 3.2 Semantic autonomy and dependence
• 3.3. Prototypical stems and affixes
• 3.4 Composite structure
• 3.5 Constructional schemas
• 3.6 An example: agreement
• 4 Clauses as constructions
• 4.1 Valence at the clause level
• 4.1.1 Arguments versus modifiers
• 4.1.2 Copular clauses
• 4.2 Grammatical functions and transitivity
• 4.2.1 Grammatical functions and the transitive clause
• 4.2.2 Intransitive clauses
• 4.2.3 Ditransitive clauses
• 4.3 Case
• 4.3.1 Correlated and uncorrelated case systems: a definition
• 4.3.2 Correlated case systems: a case study
• 4.4 Marked coding: the passive construction
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 24 Cognitive Grammar III: the verb string
• 1 English verbs: a brief overview
• 2 The clausal head and the grounding predication
• 3 The clausal head
• 3.1 The clausal head complex
• 3.2 The passive construction: [be2 [perf3 [V]]]
• 3.3 The progressive construction: [be1 [-ing [V]]]
• 3.4 The perfect construction: [have [perf4 [V]]]
• 4 The clausal grounding predication
• 4.1 Grounding: a recap
• 4.1.1 Modality
• 4.1.2 Tense
• 4.2 The epistemic model
• 4.3 Modality revisited
• 4.4 Potential and projected reality
• 5 Lexical aspect
• 5.1 Situation types: an overview
• 5.2 Perfective and imperfective processes
• 5.3 Aspect and the count/mass distinction
• 5.3.1 Perfective
• 5.3.2 Imperfective
• 5.4 Situation types: Cognitive Grammar compared to Vendler (1967)
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 25 Construction Grammar I: accounting for irregularity in grammar
• 1 Towards a typology of idiomatic expressions
• 1.1 Decoding and encoding idioms
• 1.2 Grammatical versus extragrammatical idioms
• 1.3 Substantive versus formal idioms
• 1.4 Idioms with and without pragmatic point
• 1.5 Familiar pieces familiarly arranged
• 1.6 Familiar pieces unfamiliarly arranged
• 1.7 Unfamiliar pieces familiarly arranged
• 1.8 Unfamiliar pieces unfamiliarly arranged
• 1.9 Overall evaluation
• 2 Two case studies
• 2.1 The let alone construction
• 2.2 The what’s X doing Y construction
• 3 The architecture of Construction Grammar
• 3.1 Construction Grammar: an overview
• 3.2 The status of the ‘construction’ in Construction Grammar
• 3.3 Compositionality in Construction Grammar
• 3.4 Construction Grammar as usage-based theory
• 4 Comparing Construction Grammar with Cognitive Grammar
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 26 Construction Grammar II: accounting for generalisations in grammar
• 1 Towards a constructional account of argument structure constructions
• 1.1 Assumptions
• 1.2 Defining a construction
• 1.3 Advantages of a constructional approach to verb–argument structure
• 1.3.1 A voids implausible verb senses
• 1.3.2 Avoids circularity
• 1.3.3 Semantic parsimony
• 1.3.4 Compositionality
• 2 The relationship between verbs and constructions
• 2.1 What is the nature of verb meaning?
• 2.2 What is the nature of constructional meaning?
• 2.3 When can a given verb occur in a given construction?
• 2.4 Argument roles
• 2.5 Constructional profiling
• 2.6 Fusion
• 3 Relationships between constructions
• 3.1 Polysemy links
• 3.2 Subpart links
• 3.3 Instance links
• 3.4 Metaphorical extension links
• 4 Three constructions
• 4.1 The English ditransitive construction (x causes y to receive z)
• 4.2 The English caused motion construction (x causes y to move z)
• 4.3 The English resultative construction
• 5 Other Construction Grammar approaches
• 5.1 Radical Construction Grammar
• 5.1.1 Taxonomy of constructions
• 5.1.2 Emphasis on diversity
• 5.1.3 Five key features of RCG
• 5.2 Embodied Construction Grammar
• 5.2.1 Emphasis on language processing
• 5.2.2 Analysis and simulation
• 6 Comparing constructional approaches to grammar
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 27 The evolution of grammar
• 1 The nature of grammaticalisation
• 1.1 Form change
• 1.2 Meaning change
• 2 Metaphorical extension approaches
• 2.1 The evolution of grammatical concepts
• 2.2 Metaphorical extension
• 2.3 The grammaticalisation continuum
• 2.4 The role of discourse context
• 2.5 The microstructure and macrostructure of grammaticalisation
• 2.6 Case study I: object-to-space
• 2.7 Case study II: space-to-possession
• 3 Invited inferencing theory
• 3.1 From invited inference to coded meaning
• 3.2 Subjectification
• 3.3 Intersubjectification
• 3.4 The status of metaphor in invited inferencing theory
• 3.5 Case study: the evolution of must
• 4 The subjectification approach
• 4.1 The nature of subjectification
• 4.2 Case study I: be going to
• 4.3 Case study II: the evolution of auxiliaries from verbs of motionor posture
• 5 Comparison of the three approaches: be going to
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• Part V: Applications and extensions of cognitive linguistics
• 28 Language, society and discourse
• 1 Rethinking cognitive linguistics socially
• 1.1 Joint action, coordination and convention
• 1.2 Linguistic symbols and common ground
• 1.3 Encyclopaedic meaning and shared meaning
• 1.4 Meaning as construal and construal for communication
• 2 Meaning and social reality
• 2.1 Levels of meaning: competency versus affordances
• 2.2 Types of meaning construction
• 2.3 Properties of social constructions
• 3 Cognitive sociolinguistics
• 3.1 What is the nature of cognitive sociolinguistics?
• 3.2 A case study: cognitive dialectology
• 4 Cognitive critical discourse analysis
• 4.1 From CDA to cognitive CDA
• 4.2 A case study: critical metaphor analysis
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 29 Text, narrative and literature
• 1 Narrative
• 1.1 Towards a theory of narrative in human cognition
• 1.1.1 Domains
• 1.1.2 Strata
• 1.1.3 Parameters
• 1.2 The literary mind
• 1.2.1 Events are actions
• 1.2.2 The image-schematic structure of events
• 1.2.3 Variants of events are actions
• 1.2.4 Projection of non-action stories
• 1.2.5 Creative blends
• 2 Cognitive poetics
• 2.1 The foci of cognitive poetics
• 2.2 The nature of literariness
• 2.3 Prototypicality in literature
• 2.4 Cognitive poetic applications
• 2.4.1 Conceptual metaphor
• 2.4.2 Conceptual blending
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 30 Gesture and sign language
• 1 The nature of gesture
• 1.1 Classifying gestures
• 1.2 Why we gesture
• 2 Gestural studies in cognitive linguistics
• 2.1 Image schemas
• 2.2 Conceptual metaphor
• 2.3 Conceptual metonymy
• 2.4 Mental spaces and blending
• 2.5 Construal, framing and perspective
• 3 Sign language studies in cognitive linguistics
• 3.1 Articulatory parallels between spoken and signed languages
• 3.2 Cognitive iconicity
• 3.3 Metaphor
• 3.4 Metonymy
• 3.5 Mental spaces and blending
• 4 Implications of cognitive approaches to gesture and signlanguages
• SUMMARY
• FURTHER READING
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• References
• Index