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• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• About the Authors
• Brief Contents
• Contents
• PART ONE GENES, CHROMOSOMES, AND HEREDITY
• 1 Introduction to Genetics
• 1.1 Genetics Has a Rich and Interesting History
• 1600–1850: The Dawn of Modern Biology
• Charles Darwin and Evolution
• 1.2 Genetics Progressed from Mendel to DNA in Less Than a Century
• Mendel’s Work on Transmission of Traits
• The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance: Uniting Mendel and Meiosis
• Genetic Variation
• The Search for the Chemical Nature of Genes: DNA or Protein?
• 1.3 Discovery of the Double Helix Launched the Era of Molecular Genetics
• The Structure of DNA and RNA
• Gene Expression: From DNA to Phenotype
• Proteins and Biological Function
• Linking Genotype to Phenotype: Sickle‐Cell Anemia
• 1.4 Development of Recombinant DNA Technology Began the Era of DNA Cloning
• 1.5 The Impact of Biotechnology Is Continually Expanding
• Plants, Animals, and the Food Supply
• Biotechnology in Genetics and Medicine
• 1.6 Genomics, Proteomics, and Bioinformatics Are New and Expanding Fields
• Modern Approaches to Understanding Gene Function
• 1.7 Genetic Studies Rely on the Use of Model Organisms
• The Modern Set of Genetic Model Organisms
• Model Organisms and Human Diseases
• 1.8 We Live in the Age of Genetics
• The Nobel Prize and Genetics
• Genetics, Ethics, and Society
• Summary Points
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• 2 Mitosis and Meiosis
• 2.1 Cell Structure Is Closely Tied to Genetic Function
• 2.2 Chromosomes Exist in Homologous Pairs in Diploid Organisms
• 2.3 Mitosis Partitions Chromosomes into Dividing Cells
• Interphase and the Cell Cycle
• Prophase
• Prometaphase and Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
• Cell‐Cycle Regulation and Checkpoints
• 2.4 Meiosis Creates Haploid Gametes and Spores and Enhances Genetic Variation in Species
• Meiosis: Prophase I
• Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase I
• The Second Meiotic Division
• 2.5 The Development of Gametes Varies in Spermatogenesis Compared to Oogenesis
• 2.6 Meiosis Is Critical to Sexual Reproduction in All Diploid Organisms
• 2.7 Electron Microscopy Has Revealed the Physical Structure of Mitotic and Meiotic Chromosomes
• EXPLORING GENOMICS PubMed: Exploring and Retrieving Biomedical Literature
• CASE STUDY Timing is everything
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 3 Mendelian Genetics
• 3.1 Mendel Used a Model Experimental Approach to Study Patterns of Inheritance
• 3.2 The Monohybrid Cross Reveals How One Trait Is Transmitted from Generation to Generation
• Mendel’s First Three Postulates
• Modern Genetic Terminology
• Punnett Squares
• The Testcross: One Character
• 3.3 Mendel’s Dihybrid Cross Generated a Unique Ratio
• Mendel’s Fourth Postulate: Independent Assortment
• The Testcross: Two Characters
• MODERN APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING GENE FUNCTION Identifying Mendel’s Gene for Regulating White Fl
• 3.4 The Trihybrid Cross Demonstrates That Mendel’s Principles Apply to Inheritance of Multiple Tra
• The Forked‐Line Method, or Branch Diagram
• 3.5 Mendel’s Work Was Rediscovered in the Early Twentieth Century
• Unit Factors, Genes, and Homologous Chromosomes
• Evolving Concept of the Gene
• 3.6 Independent Assortment Leads to Extensive Genetic Variation
• 3.7 Laws of Probability Help to Explain Genetic Events
• 3.8 Chi‐Square Analysis Evaluates the Influence of Chance on Genetic Data
• Chi‐Square Calculations and the Null Hypothesis
• Interpreting Probability Values
• 3.9 Pedigrees Reveal Patterns of Inheritance of Human Traits
• Pedigree Conventions
• Pedigree Analysis
• 3.10 Mutant Phenotypes Have Been Examined at the Molecular Level
• How Mendel’s Peas Become Wrinkled: A Molecular Explanation
• Tay—Sachs Disease: The Molecular Basis of a Recessive Disorder in Humans
• EXPLORING GENOMICS Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man
• CASE STUDY To test or not to test
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 4 Extensions of Mendelian Genetics
• 4.1 Alleles Alter Phenotypes in Different Ways
• 4.2 Geneticists Use a Variety of Symbols for Alleles
• 4.3 Neither Allele Is Dominant in Incomplete, or Partial, Dominance
• 4.4 In Codominance, the Influence of Both Alleles in a Heterozygote Is Clearly Evident
• 4.5 Multiple Alleles of a Gene May Exist in a Population
• The ABO Blood Groups
• The A and B Antigens
• The Bombay Phenotype
• The white Locus in Drosophila
• 4.6 Lethal Alleles Represent Essential Genes
• The Molecular Basis of Dominance, Recessiveness, and Lethality: The agouti Gene
• 4.7 Combinations of Two Gene Pairs with Two Modes of Inheritance Modify the 9:3:3:1 Ratio
• Evolving Concept of the Gene
• 4.8 Phenotypes Are Often Affected by More Than One Gene
• Epistasis
• Novel Phenotypes
• Other Modified Dihybrid Ratios
• 4.9 Complementation Analysis Can Determine if Two Mutations Causing a Similar Phenotype Are Alleles
• 4.10 Expression of a Single Gene May Have Multiple Effects
• 4.11 X‐Linkage Describes Genes on the X Chromosome
• X‐Linkage in Drosophila
• X‐Linkage in Humans
• 4.12 In Sex‐Limited and Sex‐Influenced Inheritance, an Individual’s Sex Influences the Phenoty
• 4.13 Genetic Background and the Environment May Alter Phenotypic Expression
• Penetrance and Expressivity
• Genetic Background: Position Effects
• Temperature Effects—An Introduction to Conditional Mutations
• Nutritional Effects
• Onset of Genetic Expression
• Genetic Anticipation
• GENETICS, ETHICS, AND SOCIETY Nature versus Nurture: Is the Debate Over?
• CASE STUDY Should the child be deaf?
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 5 Sex Determination and Sex Chromosomes
• 5.1 X and Y Chromosomes Were First Linked to Sex Determination Early in the Twentieth Century
• 5.2 The Y Chromosome Determines Maleness in Humans
• Klinefelter and Turner Syndromes
• 47,XXX Syndrome
• 47,XYY Condition
• Sexual Differentiation in Humans
• The Y Chromosome and Male Development
• 5.3 The Ratio of Males to Females in Humans Is Not 1.0
• 5.4 Dosage Compensation Prevents Excessive Expression of X‐Linked Genes in Humans and Other Mammal
• Barr Bodies
• The Lyon Hypothesis
• The Mechanism of Inactivation
• 5.5 The Ratio of X Chromosomes to Sets of Autosomes Can Determine Sex
• D. melanogaster
• Caenorhabditis elegans
• MODERN APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING GENE FUNCTION Drosophila Sxl Gene Induces Female Development
• 5.6 Temperature Variation Controls Sex Determination in Many Reptiles
• GENETICS, ETHICS, AND SOCIETY A Question of Gender: Sex Selection in Humans
• CASE STUDY IS it a boy or a girl?
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 6 Chromosomal Mutations: Variation in Number and Arrangement
• 6.1 Variation in Chromosome Number: Terminology and Origin
• 6.2 Monosomy and Trisomy Result in a Variety of Phenotypic Effects
• Monosomy
• Trisomy
• Down Syndrome: Trisomy 21
• The Down Syndrome Critical Region (DSCR)
• MODERN APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING GENE FUNCTION Mouse Models of Down Syndrome
• The Origin of the Extra Chromosome 21 in Down Syndrome
• Human Aneuploidy
• 6.3 Polyploidy, in Which More Than Two Haploid Sets of Chromosomes Are Present, Is Prevalent in Plan
• Autopolyploidy
• Allopolyploidy
• Endopolyploidy
• 6.4 Variation Occurs in the Composition and Arrangement of Chromosomes
• 6.5 A Deletion Is a Missing Region of a Chromosome
• Cri du Chat Syndrome in Humans
• 6.6 A Duplication Is a Repeated Segment of a Chromosome
• Gene Redundancy and Amplification—Ribosomal RNA Genes
• The Bar Mutation in Drosophila
• The Role of Gene Duplication in Evolution
• Duplications at the Molecular Level: Copy Number Variations (CNVs)
• 6.7 Inversions Rearrange the Linear Gene Sequence
• Consequences of Inversions during Gamete Formation
• Evolutionary Advantages of Inversions
• 6.8 Translocations Alter the Location of Chromosomal Segments in the Genome
• Translocations in Humans: Familial Down Syndrome
• 6.9 Fragile Sites in Human Chromosomes Are Susceptible to Breakage
• Fragile‐X Syndrome
• The Link between Fragile Sites and Cancer
• GENETICS, ETHICS, AND SOCIETY Down Syndrome and Prenatal Testing—The New Eugenics?
• CASE STUDY Fish tales
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 7 Chromosome Mapping in Eukaryotes
• 7.1 Genes Linked on the Same Chromosome Segregate Together
• The Linkage Ratio
• 7.2 Crossing Over Serves as the Basis for Determining the Distance between Genes in Chromosome Mappi
• Morgan and Crossing Over
• Sturtevant and Mapping
• Single Crossovers
• 7.3 Determining the Gene Sequence during Mapping Requires the Analysis of Multiple Crossovers
• Multiple Exchanges
• Three‐Point Mapping in Drosophila
• Determining the Gene Sequence
• An Autosomal Mapping Problem in Maize
• 7.4 As the Distance between Two Genes Increases, Mapping Estimates Become More Inaccurate
• Interference and the Coefficient of Coincidence
• 7.5 Drosophila Genes Have Been Extensively Mapped
• Evolving Concept of the Gene
• 7.6 Lod Score Analysis and Somatic Cell Hybridization Were Historically Important in Creating Human
• 7.7 Chromosome Mapping Is Currently Performed Using DNA Markers and Annotated Computer Databases
• 7.8 Crossing Over Involves a Physical Exchange between Chromatids
• 7.9 Exchanges Also Occur between Sister Chromatids during Mitosis
• EXPLORING GENOMICS Human Chromosome Maps on the Internet
• CASE STUDY Links to autism
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 8 Genetic Analysis and Mapping in Bacteria and Bacteriophages
• 8.1 Bacteria Mutate Spontaneously and Grow at an Exponential Rate
• 8.2 Genetic Recombination Occurs in Bacteria
• Conjugation in Bacteria: The Discovery of F+ and F– Strains
• Hfr Bacteria and Chromosome Mapping
• Recombination in F+ × F– Matings: A Reexamination
• The F State and Merozygotes
• 8.3 The F Factor Is an Example of a Plasmid
• 8.4 Transformation Is a Second Process Leading to Genetic Recombination in Bacteria
• The Transformation Process
• Transformation and Linked Genes
• 8.5 Bacteriophages Are Bacterial Viruses
• Phage T4: Structure and Life Cycle
• The Plaque Assay
• Lysogeny
• 8.6 Transduction Is Virus‐Mediated Bacterial DNA Transfer
• The Lederberg–Zinder Experiment
• Transduction and Mapping
• 8.7 Bacteriophages Undergo Intergenic Recombination
• Bacteriophage Mutations
• Mapping in Bacteriophages
• 8.8 Intragenic Recombination Occurs in Phage T4
• The rII Locus of Phage T4
• Complementation by rII Mutations
• Recombinational Analysis
• Deletion Testing of the rII Locus
• The rII Gene Map
• Evolving Concept of the Gene
• GENETICS, ETHICS, AND SOCIETY Multidrug‐Resistant Bacteria: Fighting with Phage
• CASE STUDY To treat or not to treat
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 9 Extranuclear Inheritance
• 9.1 Organelle Heredity Involves DNA in ‐Chloroplasts and Mitochondria
• Chloroplasts: Variegation in Four O’Clock Plants
• Chloroplast Mutations in Chlamydomonas
• Mitochondrial Mutations: Early Studies in Neurospora and Yeast
• 9.2 Knowledge of Mitochondrial and Chloroplast DNA Helps Explain Organelle Heredity
• Organelle DNA and the Endosymbiotic Theory
• Molecular Organization and Gene Products of ‐Chloroplast DNA
• Molecular Organization and Gene Products of ‐Mitochondrial DNA
• 9.3 Mutations in Mitochondrial DNA Cause Human Disorders
• Mitochondria, Human Health, and Aging
• Future Prevention of the Transmission of mtDNA‐Based Disorders
• 9.4 In Maternal Effect, the Maternal Genotype Has a Strong Influence during Early Development
• Lymnaea Coiling
• Embryonic Development in Drosophila
• GENETICS, ETHICS, AND SOCIETY Mitochondrial Replacement and Three‐Parent Babies
• CASE STUDY Is it all in the genes?
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• PART TWO DNA: STRUCTURE, REPLICATION, AND ORGANIZATION
• 10 DNA Structure and Analysis
• 10.1 The Genetic Material Must Exhibit Four Characteristics
• 10.2 Until 1944, Observations Favored Protein as the Genetic Material
• 10.3 Evidence Favoring DNA as the Genetic Material Was First Obtained during the Study of Bacteria a
• Transformation: Early Studies
• Transformation: The Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty Experiment
• The Hershey–Chase Experiment
• Transfection Experiments
• 10.4 Indirect and Direct Evidence Supports the Concept That DNA Is the Genetic Material in Eukaryote
• Indirect Evidence: Distribution of DNA
• Indirect Evidence: Mutagenesis
• Direct Evidence: Recombinant DNA Studies
• 10.5 RNA Serves as the Genetic Material in Some Viruses
• 10.6 Knowledge of Nucleic Acid Chemistry Is Essential to the Understanding of DNA Structure
• Nucleotides: Building Blocks of Nucleic Acids
• Nucleoside Diphosphates and Triphosphates
• Polynucleotides
• 10.7 The Structure of DNA Holds the Key to Understanding Its Function
• Base‐Composition Studies
• X‐Ray Diffraction Analysis
• The Watson–Crick Model
• Evolving Concept of the Gene
• 10.8 Alternative Forms of DNA Exist
• 10.9 The Structure of RNA Is Chemically Similar to DNA, but Single Stranded
• 10.10 Many Analytical Techniques Have Been Useful during the Investigation of DNA and RNA
• Electrophoresis
• EXPLORING GENOMICS Introduction to Bioinformatics: BLAST
• CASE STUDY Credit where credit is due
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 11 DNA Replication and Recombination
• 11.1 DNA Is Reproduced by Semiconservative Replication
• The Meselson–Stahl Experiment
• Semiconservative Replication in Eukaryotes
• Origins, Forks, and Units of Replication
• 11.2 DNA Synthesis in Bacteria Involves Five ‐Polymerases, as Well as Other Enzymes
• DNA Polymerase I
• DNA Polymerase II, III, IV, and V
• The DNA Pol III Holoenzyme
• 11.3 Many Complex Issues Must Be Resolved during DNA Replication
• Unwinding the DNA Helix
• Initiation of DNA Synthesis Using an RNA Primer
• Continuous and Discontinuous DNA Synthesis
• Concurrent Synthesis Occurs on the Leading and Lagging Strands
• Proofreading and Error Correction Occurs during DNA Replication
• 11.4 A Coherent Model Summarizes DNA Replication
• 11.5 Replication Is Controlled by a Variety of Genes
• MODERN APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING GENE FUNCTION Lethal Knockouts
• 11.6 Eukaryotic DNA Replication Is Similar to Replication in Bacteria, but Is More Complex
• Initiation at Multiple Replication Origins
• Multiple Eukaryotic DNA Polymerases
• Replication through Chromatin
• 11.7 Telomeres Solve Stability and Replication Problems at Eukaryotic Chromosome Ends
• Telomere Structure and Chromosome Stability
• Telomeres and Chromosome End Replication
• Telomeres in Disease, Aging, and Cancer
• 11.8 Recombination Is Essential for Genetic Exchange and DNA Repair
• Models of Homologous Recombination
• GENETICS, ETHICS, AND SOCIETY Telomeres: The Key to a Long Life?
• CASE STUDY At loose ends
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 12 DNA Organization in Chromosomes
• 12.1 Viral and Bacterial Chromosomes are Relatively Simple DNA Molecules
• 12.2 Supercoiling Facilitates Compaction of the DNA of Viral and Bacterial Chromosomes
• 12.3 Specialized Chromosomes Reveal Variations in the Organization of DNA
• Polytene Chromosomes
• Lampbrush Chromosomes
• 12.4 DNA Is Organized into Chromatin in Eukaryotes
• Chromatin Structure and Nucleosomes
• Chromatin Remodeling
• Heterochromatin
• 12.5 Chromosome Banding Differentiates Regions along the Mitotic Chromosome
• 12.6 Eukaryotic Genomes Demonstrate Complex Sequence Organization Characterized by Repetitive DNA
• Satellite DNA
• Centromeric DNA Sequences
• Middle Repetitive Sequences: VNTRs and STRs
• Repetitive Transposed Sequences: SINEs and LINEs
• Middle Repetitive Multiple‐Copy Genes
• 12.7 The Vast Majority of a Eukaryotic Genome Does Not Encode Functional Genes
• EXPLORING GENOMICS Database of Genomic Variants: Structural Variations in the Human Genome
• CASE STUDY Helping or hurting?
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• PART THREE GENE EXPRESSION AND ITS REGULATION
• 13 The Genetic Code and Transcription
• 13.1 The Genetic Code Uses Ribonucleotide Bases as “Letters”
• 13.2 Early Studies Established the Basic Operational Patterns of the Code
• The Triplet Nature of the Code
• 13.3 Studies by Nirenberg, Matthaei, and Others Led to Deciphering of the Code
• Synthesizing Polypeptides in a Cell‐Free System
• Homopolymer Codes
• The Use of Mixed Heteropolymers
• The Triplet Binding Assay
• Repeating Copolymers
• 13.4 The Coding Dictionary Reveals Several Interesting Patterns among the 64 Codons
• Degeneracy and the Wobble Hypothesis
• The Ordered Nature of the Code
• Punctuating the Code: Initiation and Termination Codons
• 13.5 The Genetic Code Has Been Confirmed in Studies of Phage MS2
• 13.6 The Genetic Code Is Nearly Universal
• 13.7 Different Initiation Points Create Overlapping Genes
• 13.8 Transcription Synthesizes RNA on a DNA Template
• 13.9 RNA Polymerase Directs RNA Synthesis
• Promoters, Template Binding, and the Subunit
• Initiation, Elongation, and Termination of RNA Synthesis in Bacteria
• 13.10 Transcription in Eukaryotes Differs from Bacterial Transcription in Several Ways
• Initiation of Transcription in Eukaryotes
• Recent Discoveries Concerning Eukaryotic RNA Polymerase Function
• Processing Eukaryotic RNA: Caps and Tails
• 13.11 The Coding Regions of Eukaryotic Genes Are Interrupted by Intervening Sequences Called Introns
• Why Do Introns Exist?
• Splicing Mechanisms: Self‐Splicing RNAs
• Splicing Mechanisms: The Spliceosome
• Evolving Concept of the Gene
• 13.12 RNA Editing May Modify the Final Transcript
• 13.13 Transcription Has Been Visualized by Electron Microscopy
• CASE STUDY Treatment dilemmas
• Summary Points
• GENETICS, ETHICS, AND SOCIETY Treating Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy with Exon‐Skipping Drugs
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 14 Translation and Proteins
• 14.1 Translation of mRNA Depends on Ribosomes and Transfer RNAs
• Ribosomal Structure
• tRNA Structure
• Charging tRNA
• 14.2 Translation of mRNA Can Be Divided into Three Steps
• Initiation
• Elongation
• Termination
• Polyribosomes
• 14.3 High‐Resolution Studies Have Revealed Many Details about the Functional Bacterial Ribosome
• 14.4 Translation Is More Complex in Eukaryotes
• 14.5 The Initial Insight That Proteins Are Important in Heredity Was Provided by the Study of Inborn
• Phenylketonuria
• 14.6 Studies of Neurospora Led to the One‐Gene:One‐Enzyme Hypothesis
• Analysis of Neurospora Mutants by Beadle and Tatum
• Genes and Enzymes: Analysis of Biochemical Pathways
• 14.7 Studies of Human Hemoglobin Established That One Gene Encodes One Polypeptide
• Sickle‐Cell Anemia
• Evolving Concept of the Gene
• 14.8 Variation in Protein Structure Provides the Basis of Biological Diversity
• 14.9 Posttranslational Modification Alters the Final Protein Product
• Protein Folding and Misfolding
• 14.10 Proteins Perform Many Diverse Roles
• 14.11 Proteins Often Include More Than One ‐Functional Domain
• Exon Shuffling
• Exploring Genomics Translation Tools and Swiss‐Prot for Studying ‐Protein Sequences
• CASE STUDY Crippled ribosomes
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 15 Gene Mutation, DNA Repair, and Transposition
• 15.1 Gene Mutations Are Classified in Various Ways
• Classification Based on Type of Molecular Change
• Classification Based on Effect on Function
• Classification Based on Location of Mutation
• 15.2 Mutations Occur Spontaneously and Randomly
• Spontaneous and Induced Mutations
• Spontaneous Germ‐Line Mutation Rates in Humans
• Spontaneous Somatic Mutation Rates in Humans
• The Fluctuation Test: Are Mutations Random or Adaptive?
• 15.3 Spontaneous Mutations Arise from ‐Replication Errors and Base Modifications
• DNA Replication Errors and Slippage
• Tautomeric Shifts
• Depurination and Deamination
• Oxidative Damage
• Transposable Elements
• 15.4 Induced Mutations Arise from DNA Damage Caused by Chemicals and Radiation
• Base Analogs
• Alkylating, Intercalating, and Adduct‐Forming Agents
• Ultraviolet Light
• Ionizing Radiation
• 15.5 Single‐Gene Mutations Cause a Wide Range of Human Diseases
• Single‐Gene Mutations and β‐Thalassemia
• Mutations Caused by Expandable DNA Repeats
• 15.6 Organisms Use DNA Repair Systems to Counteract Mutations
• Proofreading and Mismatch Repair
• Postreplication Repair and the SOS Repair System
• Photoreactivation Repair: Reversal of UV Damage
• Base and Nucleotide Excision Repair
• Nucleotide Excision Repair and Xeroderma ‐Pigmentosum in Humans
• Double‐Strand Break Repair in Eukaryotes
• 15.7 The Ames Test Is Used to Assess the Mutagenicity of Compounds
• 15.8 Transposable Elements Move within the Genome and May Create Mutations
• DNA Transposons
• DNA Transposons—the Ac–Ds System in Maize
• Retrotransposons
• Retrotransposons—the Copia –White‐Apricot ‐System in Drosophila
• Transposable Elements in Humans
• Transposable Elements, Mutations, and Evolution
• MODERN APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING GENE FUNCTION Transposon‐Mediated Mutations Reveal Genes Involv
• EXPLORING GENOMICS Sequence Alignment to Identify a Mutation
• CASE STUDY An Unexpected Diagnosis
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 16 Regulation of Gene Expression in Bacteria
• 16.1 Bacteria Regulate Gene Expression in Response to Environmental Conditions
• 16.2 Lactose Metabolism in E. coli Is Regulated by an Inducible System
• Structural Genes
• The Discovery of Regulatory Mutations
• The Operon Model: Negative Control
• Genetic Proof of the Operon Model
• Isolation of the Repressor
• 16.3 The Catabolite‐Activating Protein (CAP) Exerts Positive Control over the lac Operon
• 16.4 Crystal Structure Analysis of Repressor ‐Complexes Has Confirmed the Operon Model
• 16.5 The Tryptophan (trp) Operon in E. coli Is a Repressible Gene System
• Evidence for the trp Operon
• Evolving Concept of the Gene
• 16.6 RNA Plays Diverse Roles in Regulating Gene Expression in Bacteria
• Attenuation
• Riboswitches
• Small Noncoding RNAs Play Regulatory Roles in Bacteria
• CASE STUDY MRSA in the National Football League (NFL)
• Summary Points
• GENETICS, ETHICS, AND SOCIETY Quorum Sensing: Social Networking and Gene Regulation in Bacteria
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 17 Transcriptional Regulation in Eukaryotes
• 17.1 Organization of the Eukaryotic Cell Facilitates Gene Regulation at Several Levels
• 17.2 Eukaryotic Gene Expression Is Influenced by Chromatin Modifications
• Chromosome Territories and Transcription Factories
• Open and Closed Chromatin
• Histone Modifications and Chromatin Remodeling
• DNA Methylation
• 17.3 Eukaryotic Transcription Initiation Requires Specific Cis‐Acting Sites
• Promoters and Promoter Elements
• Enhancers, Insulators, and Silencers
• 17.4 Eukaryotic Transcription Initiation Is Regulated by Transcription Factors That Bind to Cis‐Ac
• The Human Metallothionein 2A Gene: Multiple Cis‐Acting Elements and Transcription Factors
• Functional Domains of Eukaryotic Transcription Factors
• 17.5 Activators and Repressors Interact with General Transcription Factors and Affect Chromatin Stru
• Formation of the RNA Polymerase II Transcription Initiation Complex
• Mechanisms of Transcription Activation and Repression
• 17.6 Gene Regulation in a Model Organism: Transcription of the GAL Genes of Yeast
• 17.7 ENCODE Data Are Transforming Our Concepts of Eukaryotic Gene Regulation
• Enhancer and Promoter Elements
• Transcripts and Noncoding RNA
• Many Disease‐Associated Genome Variations Affect Regulatory Regions
• Evolving Concept of a Gene
• Exploring Genomics Tissue‐Specific Gene Expression
• CASE STUDY Risk assessment
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 18 Posttranscriptional Regulation in Eukaryotes
• 18.1 Regulation of Alternative Splicing Determines Which RNA Spliceforms of a Gene Are Translated
• Types of Alternative Splicing
• Alternative Splicing and the Proteome
• Regulation of Alternative Splicing
• Sex Determination in Drosophila: A Model for Regulation of Alternative Splicing
• Alternative Splicing and Human Diseases
• 18.2 Gene Expression Is Regulated by mRNA Stability and Degradation
• Mechanisms of mRNA Decay
• Regulation of mRNA Stability and Degradation
• mRNA Surveillance and Nonsense‐Mediated Decay
• 18.3 Noncoding RNAs Play Diverse Roles in ‐Posttranscriptional Regulation
• The Discovery of RNA Interference and microRNAs
• Mechanisms of RNA Interference
• RNA Interference in Research, Biotechnology, and Medicine
• Long Noncoding RNAs and Posttranscriptional Regulation
• Circular RNAs
• MODERN APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING GENE FUNCTION MicroRNAs Regulate Ovulation in Female Mice
• 18.4 mRNA Localization and Translation Initiation Are Highly Regulated
• Cytoplasmic Polyadenylation
• mRNA Localization and Localized Translational Control
• 18.5 Posttranslational Modifications Regulate ‐Protein Activity
• Regulation of Proteins by Phosphorylation
• Ubiquitin‐Mediated Protein Degradation
• GENETICS, ETHICS, AND SOCIETY Is DNA Enough?
• CASE STUDY A mysterious muscular dystrophy
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 19 Epigenetic Regulation of Gene Expression
• 19.1 Molecular Alterations to the Genome Create an Epigenome
• DNA Methylation and the Methylome
• Histone Modification and Chromatin Remodeling
• Short and Long Noncoding RNAs
• 19.2 Epigenetics and Monoallelic Gene Expression
• Parent‐of‐Origin Monoallelic Expression: Imprinting
• Random Monoallelic Expression: Inactivation of the X Chromosome
• Random Monoallelic Expression of Autosomal Genes
• Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) and Imprinting Defects
• 19.3 Epigenetics and Cancer
• DNA Methylation and Cancer
• Chromatin Remodeling and Histone Modification in Cancer
• Epigenetic Cancer Therapy
• 19.4 Epigenetic Traits Are Heritable
• Environmental Induction of Epigenetic Change
• Stress‐Induced Behavior Is Heritable
• 19.5 Epigenome Projects and Databases
• CASE STUDY Food for Thought
• Summary Points
• EXPLORING GENOMICS The International Human Epigenome Consortium (IHEC)
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• PART FOUR GENETIC TECHNOLOGY AND GENOMICS
• 20 Recombinant DNA Technology
• 20.1 Recombinant DNA Technology Began with Two Key Tools: Restriction Enzymes and ‐Cloning Vectors
• Restriction Enzymes Cut DNA at Specific ‐Recognition Sequences
• DNA Vectors Accept and Replicate DNA Molecules to Be Cloned
• Bacterial Plasmid Vectors
• Other Types of Cloning Vectors
• Host Cells for Cloning Vectors
• 20.2 DNA Libraries Are Collections of Cloned Sequences
• Genomic Libraries
• Complementary DNA (cDNA) Libraries
• Specific Genes Can Be Recovered from a Library by Screening
• 20.3 The Polymerase Chain Reaction Is a Powerful Technique for Copying DNA
• PCR Limitations
• PCR Applications
• 20.4 Molecular Techniques for Analyzing DNA and RNA
• Restriction Mapping
• Nucleic Acid Blotting
• In Situ Hybridization
• 20.5 DNA Sequencing Is the Ultimate Way to Characterize DNA at the Molecular Level
• Sequencing Technologies Have Progressed Rapidly
• Next‐Generation Sequencing Technology
• Third‐Generation Sequencing Technology
• DNA Sequencing and Genomics
• 20.6 Creating Knockout and Transgenic Organisms for Studying Gene Function
• Gene Targeting and Knockout Animal Models
• Making a Transgenic Animal: The Basics
• Gene Editing with CRISPR‐Cas
• EXPLORING GENOMICS Manipulating Recombinant DNA: Restriction ‐Mapping and Designing PCR Primers
• CASE STUDY Ethical issues and genetic technology
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 21 Genomic Analysis
• 21.1 Genomic Analysis Before Modern Sequencing Methods Involved Classical Genetics Approaches and Cl
• 21.2 Whole‐Genome Sequencing Is Widely Used for Sequencing and Assembling Entire Genomes
• High‐Throughput Sequencing and Its Impact on Genomics
• The Clone‐by‐Clone Approach
• Draft Sequences and Reference Genomes
• 21.3 DNA Sequence Analysis Relies on Bioinformatics Applications and Genome Databases
• Annotation to Identify Gene Sequences
• Hallmark Characteristics of a Gene Sequence Can Be Recognized during Annotation
• 21.4 Functional Genomics Establishes Gene Function and Identifies Regulatory Elements in a Genome
• Predicting Gene and Protein Functions by Sequence Analysis
• Predicting Function from Structural Analysis of Protein Domains and Motifs
• Investigators Are Using Genomics Techniques Such as Chromatin Immunoprecipitation to Investigate Asp
• 21.5 The Human Genome Project Revealed Many Important Aspects of Genome Organization in Humans
• Origins of the Project
• Major Features of the Human Genome
• Individual Variations in the Human Genome
• Accessing the Human Genome Project on the Internet
• 21.6 The “Omics” Revolution Has Created a New Era of Biological Research
• After the HGP, What’s Next?
• Personal Genome Projects
• Somatic Genome Mosaicism and the Emerging Pangenome
• Whole‐Exome Sequencing
• Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE) Project
• Nutrigenomics Considers Genetics and Diet
• No Genome Left Behind and the Genome 10K Plan
• Stone‐Age Genomics
• 21.7 Comparative Genomics Analyzes and Compares Genomes from Different Organisms
• Bacterial and Eukaryotic Genomes Display Common Structural and Functional Features and Important Dif
• Comparative Genomics Provides Novel Information about the Genomes of Model Organisms and the Human G
• The Sea Urchin Genome
• The Dog Genome
• The Chimpanzee Genome
• The Rhesus Monkey Genome
• The Neanderthal Genome and Modern Humans
• 21.8 Metagenomics Applies Genomics Techniques to Environmental Samples
• The Human Microbiome Project
• 21.9 Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Profiles of Expressed Genes in Cells and Tissues
• DNA Microarray Analysis
• RNA Sequencing Technology Allows for In Situ Analysis of Gene Expression
• 21.10 Proteomics Identifies and Analyzes the Protein Composition of Cells
• Reconciling the Number of Genes and the Number of Proteins Expressed by a Cell or Tissue
• Mass Spectrometry for Protein Identification
• EXPLORING GENOMICS Contigs, Shotgun Sequencing, and Comparative Genomics
• CASE STUDY Your microbiome may be a risk factor for disease
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 22 Applications of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
• 22.1 Genetically Engineered Organisms Synthesize a Variety of Valuable Biopharmaceutical Products
• Recombinant Protein Production in Bacteria
• Transgenic Animal Hosts and Biopharmaceutical Products
• Recombinant DNA Approaches for Vaccine Production
• Vaccine Proteins Can Be Produced by Plants
• DNA‐Based Vaccines
• 22.2 Genetic Engineering of Plants Has Revolutionized Agriculture
• 22.3 Genetically Modified Animals Serve Important Roles in Biotechnology
• Examples of Transgenic Animals
• 22.4 Genetic Testing, Including Genomic Analysis, Is Transforming Medical Diagnosis
• Genetic Testing for Prognostic or Diagnostic Purposes
• Prenatal Genetic Testing
• Genetic Testing Using Allele‐Specific Oligonucleotides
• Genetic Testing Using Microarrays
• Applications of Gene‐Expression Microarrays and Next–Generation Sequencing for Pathogen Identifi
• Screening the Genome for Genes or Mutations You Want
• 22.5 Genetic Analysis of Individual Genomes
• 22.6 Genetic Analysis from Single Cells
• 22.7 Genome‐Wide Association Studies Identify Genome Variations That Contribute to Disease
• 22.8 Synthetic Genomes and the Emergence of Synthetic Biology
• The Minimal Genome: How Many Essential Genes Are Required by a Living Cell?
• Design and Transplantation of a Synthetic Genome Defines the Minimal Bacterial Genome
• The Essential Genes of Human Cells and the Quest to Create a Synthetic Human Genome
• Synthetic Biology for Bioengineering Applications
• 22.9 Genetic Engineering, Genomics, and Biotechnology Raise Ethical, Social, and Legal Questions
• Genetic Testing and Ethical Dilemmas
• Direct‐to‐Consumer Genetic Testing and Regulating the Genetic Test Providers
• DNA and Gene Patents
• Whole‐Genome Sequence Analysis Presents Many Questions of Ethics
• Privacy and Anonymity in the Era of Genomic Big Data
• GENETICS, ETHICS, AND SOCIETY Privacy and Anonymity in the Era of Genomic Big Data
• Preconception Testing, Destiny Predictions, and Baby‐Predicting Patents
• Patents and Synthetic Biology
• CASE STUDY “Driving” to Extinction
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• PART FIVE GENETIC ANALYSIS OF ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
• 23 Developmental Genetics
• 23.1 Differentiated States Develop from Coordinated Programs of Gene Expression
• Genetic and Epigenetic Regulation of Development
• 23.2 Evolutionary Conservation of Developmental Mechanisms Can Be Studied Using Model Organisms
• Analysis of Developmental Mechanisms
• 23.3 Genetic Analysis of Embryonic Development in Drosophila Reveals How the Body Axis of Animals Is
• Overview of Drosophila Development
• Genetic Analysis of Embryogenesis
• 23.4 Segment Formation and Body Plans in Drosophila and Mammals
• Gap Genes
• Pair‐Rule Genes
• Segment Polarity Genes
• Segmentation Genes in Mice and Humans
• 23.5 Homeotic Selector Genes Specify Body Parts of the Adult
• Hox Genes in Drosophila
• Hox Genes and Human Genetic Disorders
• 23.6 Plants Have Evolved Developmental Regulatory Systems That Parallel Those of Animals
• Homeotic Genes in Arabidopsis
• Divergence in Homeotic Genes
• 23.7 C. elegans Serves as a Model for Cell–Cell Interactions in Development
• Signaling Pathways in Development
• The Notch Signaling Pathway
• Overview of C. elegans Development
• Genetic Analysis of Vulva Formation
• MODERN APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING GENE FUNCTION Downregulating a Single Gene Reveals Secrets to Hea
• 23.8 Binary Switch Genes and Regulatory Networks Program Genomic Expression
• The Control of Eye Formation
• GENETICS, ETHICS, AND SOCIETY Stem Cell Wars
• CASE STUDY One foot or another
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 24 Cancer Genetics
• 24.1 Cancer Is a Genetic Disease at the Level of Somatic Cells
• What Is Cancer?
• The Clonal Origin of Cancer Cells
• Driver Mutations and Passenger Mutations
• The Cancer Stem Cell Hypothesis
• Cancer as a Multistep Process, Requiring Multiple Mutations and Clonal Expansions
• 24.2 Cancer Cells Contain Genetic Defects Affecting Genomic Stability, DNA Repair, and Chromatin Mod
• Genomic Instability and Defective DNA Repair
• Chromatin Modifications and Cancer Epigenetics
• 24.3 Cancer Cells Contain Genetic Defects Affecting Cell‐Cycle Regulation
• The Cell Cycle and Signal Transduction
• Cell‐Cycle Control and Checkpoints
• Control of Apoptosis
• Cancer Therapies and Cancer Cell Biology
• 24.4 Proto‐oncogenes and Tumor‐Suppressor Genes Are Altered in Cancer Cells
• The ras Proto‐oncogenes
• The TP53 Tumor‐Suppressor Gene
• 24.5 Cancer Cells Metastasize and Invade Other Tissues
• 24.6 Predisposition to Some Cancers Can Be Inherited
• 24.7 Viruses Contribute to Cancer in Both Humans and Animals
• 24.8 Environmental Agents Contribute to Human Cancers
• Natural Environmental Agents
• Human‐Made Chemicals and Pollutants
• Tobacco Smoke and Cancer
• CASE STUDY Cancer‐killing bacteria
• Summary Points
• Exploring Genomics The Cancer Genome Anatomy Project (CGAP)
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 25 Quantitative Genetics and Multifactorial Traits
• 25.1 Not All Polygenic Traits Show Continuous Variation
• 25.2 Quantitative Traits Can Be Explained in ‐Mendelian Terms
• The Multiple‐Gene Hypothesis for Quantitative Inheritance
• Additive Alleles: The Basis of Continuous Variation
• Calculating the Number of Polygenes
• 25.3 The Study of Polygenic Traits Relies on Statistical Analysis
• The Mean
• Variance
• Standard Deviation
• Standard Error of the Mean
• Covariance and Correlation Coefficient
• Analysis of a Quantitative Character
• 25.4 Heritability Values Estimate the Genetic Contribution to Phenotypic Variability
• Broad‐Sense Heritability
• Narrow‐Sense Heritability
• Artificial Selection
• Limitations of Heritability Studies
• 25.5 Twin Studies Allow an Estimation of Heritability in Humans
• Large‐Scale Analysis of Twin Studies
• Twin Studies Have Several Limitations
• 25.6 Quantitative Trait Loci Are Useful in Studying Multifactorial Phenotypes
• Expression QTLs Regulate Gene Expression
• Expression QTLs and Genetic Disorders
• GENETICS, ETHICS, AND SOCIETY Rice, Genes, and the Second Green Revolution
• CASE STUDY A Chance Discovery
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• 26 Population and Evolutionary Genetics
• 26.1 Genetic Variation Is Present in Most Populations and Species
• Detecting Genetic Variation
• Recombinant DNA Technology and Genetic Variation
• Genetic Variation in Genomes
• Explaining the High Level of Genetic Variation in Populations
• 26.2 The Hardy–Weinberg Law Describes Allele Frequencies and Genotype Frequencies in Population Ge
• Calculating Genotype Frequencies
• Calculating Allele Frequencies
• The Hardy–Weinberg Law and Its Assumptions
• 26.3 The Hardy–Weinberg Law Can Be Applied to Human Populations
• Testing for Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium in a Population
• Calculating Frequencies for Multiple Alleles in Populations
• Calculating Allele Frequencies for X‐linked Traits
• Calculating Heterozygote Frequency
• 26.4 Natural Selection Is a Major Force Driving Allele Frequency Change
• Detecting Natural Selection in Populations
• Fitness and Selection
• There Are Several Types of Selection
• 26.5 Mutation Creates New Alleles in a Gene Pool
• 26.6 Migration and Gene Flow Can Alter Allele Frequencies
• 26.7 Genetic Drift Causes Random Changes in Allele Frequency in Small Populations
• Founder Effects in Human Populations
• 26.8 Nonrandom Mating Changes Genotype Frequency but Not Allele Frequency
• Inbreeding
• 26.9 Speciation Can Occur through Reproductive Isolation
• Changes Leading to Speciation
• The Rate of Macroevolution and Speciation
• 26.10 Phylogeny Can Be Used to Analyze Evolutionary History
• Constructing Phylogenetic Trees from DNA Sequences
• Reconstructing Vertebrate Evolution by Phylogenetic Analysis
• Molecular Clocks Measure the Rate of Evolutionary Change
• The Complex Origins of the Human Genome
• GENETICS ,ETHICS, AND SOCIETY Tracking Our Genetic Footprints out of Africa
• CASE STUDY A Tale of Two Olivias
• Summary Points
• Insights and Solutions
• Problems and Discussion Questions
• Extra‐Spicy Problems
• Special Topics In Modern Genetics 1
• CRISPR‐Cas and Genome Editing
• CRISPR‐Cas Is an Adaptive Immune System in Prokaryotes
• Discovery of CRISPR
• The CRISPR‐Cas Mechanism for RNA‐Guided Destruction of Invading DNA
• Type II CRISPR‐Cas Systems
• CRISPR‐Cas has been Adapted as a Powerful Tool for Genome Editing
• CRISPR‐Cas9 In Vitro
• CRISPR‐Cas9 Genome Editing of Mammalian Cells
• CRISPR‐Cas Infidelity
• CRISPR‐Cas Technology Has Diverse Applications
• CRISPR‐Cas as a Tool for Basic Genetic Research
• Box 1 The CRISPR‐Cas9 Patent Battle
• CRISPR‐Cas in Biotechnology
• Clinical Use of CRISPR‐Cas to Treat or Cure Disease
• Box 2 Ethical Concerns of Human Genome Editing
• Special Topics In Modern Genetics 2
• DNA Forensics
• DNA Profiling Methods
• VNTR‐Based DNA Fingerprinting
• Box 1 The Pitchfork Case: The First Criminal Conviction Using DNA Profiling
• Autosomal STR DNA Profiling
• Y‐Chromosome STR Profiling
• Mitochondrial DNA Profiling
• Single‐Nucleotide Polymorphism Profiling
• DNA Phenotyping
• Box 2 Putting a Face to DNA: The Bouzigard Case
• Interpreting DNA Profiles
• The Uniqueness of DNA Profiles
• DNA Profile Databases
• Technical and Ethical Issues Surrounding DNA Profiling
• Box 3 The Kennedy Brewer Case: Two Bite‐Mark Errors and One Hit
• Box 4 A Case of Transference: The Lukis Anderson Story
• Special Topics In Modern Genetics 3
• Genomics and Precision Medicine
• Pharmacogenomics
• Optimizing Drug Responses
• Developing Targeted Drugs
• Box 1 Preemptive Pharmacogenomic Screening: The PGEN4Kids Program
• Precision Oncology
• Targeted Cancer Immunotherapies
• Box 2 Precision Cancer Diagnostics and Treatments: The Lukas Wartman Story
• Box 3 Cell Types in the Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems
• Box 4 Steps in Cytotoxic T‐cell Recognition, Activation, and Destruction of Cancer Cells
• Precision Medicine and Disease Diagnostics
• Technical, Social, and Ethical Challenges
• Box 5 Beyond Genomics: Personal Omics Profiling
• Special Topics In Modern Genetics 4
• Genetically Modified Foods
• What Are GM Foods?
• Herbicide‐Resistant GM Crops
• Box 1 The Tale of GM Salmon—Downstream Effects?
• Insect‐Resistant GM Crops
• GM Crops for Direct Consumption
• Methods Used to Create GM Plants
• Selectable Markers
• Roundup‐Ready® Soybeans
• Golden Rice 2
• Gene Editing and GM Foods
• GM Foods Controversies
• Box 2 The New CRISPR Mushroom
• Health and Safety
• Environmental Effects
• The Future of GM Foods
• Special Topics In Modern Genetics 5
• Gene Therapy
• What Genetic Conditions Are Candidates for Treatment by Gene Therapy?
• How Are Therapeutic Genes Delivered?
• Viral Vectors for Gene Therapy
• Box 1 ClinicalTrials.gov
• Nonviral Delivery Methods
• Stem Cells for Delivering Therapeutic Genes
• The First Successful Gene Therapy Trial
• Gene Therapy Setbacks
• Problems with Gene Therapy Vectors
• Recent Successful Trials by Conventional Gene Therapy Approaches
• Treating Retinal Blindness
• Successful Treatment of Hemophilia B
• HIV as a Vector Shows Promise in Recent Trials
• Box 2 Glybera: The First Commercial Gene Therapy to be Approved in the West Lasted Only 5 Years
• Gene Editing Approaches to Gene Therapy
• DNA‐Editing Nucleases
• CRISPR‐Cas Method Revolutionizes Gene Editing Applications and Renews Optimism in Gene Therapy
• RNA‐Based Therapeutics
• Future Challenges and Ethical Issues
• Ethical Concerns Surrounding Gene Therapy
• Box 3 Gene Doping for Athletic Performance?
• Special Topics In Modern Genetics 6
• Advances in Neurogenetics: The Study of Huntington Disease
• Box 1 George Huntington and His Namesake Disease
• The Search for the Huntington Gene
• Finding Linkage between Huntington Disease and an RFLP Marker
• Box 2 Nancy Wexler and the Venezuelan Pedigree
• Assigning the HD Gene to Chromosome 4
• The Identification and Cloning of the Huntington Gene
• Box 3 Genetic Testing for Huntington Disease
• The HTT Gene and Its Protein Product
• Molecular and Cellular Alterations in Huntington Disease
• Transcriptional Disruption
• Impaired Protein Folding and Degradation
• Synaptic Dysfunction
• Impaired Mitochondrial Function
• Transgenic Animal Models of Huntington Disease
• Using Transgenic Mice to Study Huntington Disease
• Transgenic Sheep as an Animal Model of Huntington Disease
• Cellular and Molecular Approaches to Therapy
• Stem Cells for Transplantation
• Identifying Potential Drugs for Therapy
• Gene Silencing to Reduce mHTT Levels
• Gene Editing in Huntington Disease
• The Relationship between HD and Other Neurodegenerative Disorders
• Box 4 Huntington Disease and Behavior
• Appendix A Selected Readings
• Appendix B Answernto Selected Problems
• Glossary
• Credits
• Index
• Evolving Concept of The Gene
• Back Cover