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• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Detaild contents
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Acronyms
• Part 1 Understanding crime and criminology
• 1 Understanding crime and criminology
• What is criminology?
• An interdisciplinary subject
• Defining criminology
• Understanding crime
• Crime and the criminal law
• Crime as a social construct
• Historical variation
• Criminology in Britain
• Further reading
• 2 Crime and punishment in history
• Introduction
• Emergence of a modern criminal justice system
• Policing
• The ‘new police’
• Resistance and reform
• Into the twentieth century
• The victim and prosecution
• Formalisation of the prosecution process
• The courts
• Decline of the profit motive
• Punishment
• Capital punishment
• Transportation
• Imprisonment
• Probation
• Crime and violence in history
• Levels of crime
• Perceptions of crime
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 3 Crime data and crime trends
• Introduction
• Measuring crime
• Official statistics
• England and Wales: Criminal Statistics
• United States: Uniform Crime Reports
• Assessing official statistics
• Impact of legislation
• Understanding ‘attrition’
• Limitations of official statistics
• Victimisation surveys
• The Crime Survey for England and Wales
• Local crime surveys
• Other victimisation surveys
• Assessing victimisation surveys
• Comparing official statistics and victimisation surveys
• Crime trends
• Data on offenders
• Self-report studies
• Assessing the self-report method
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 4 Crime and the media
• Introduction
• Academic study of the media
• Media representations of crime
• Newsworthiness
• The crime content in the media
• Violent crime in the news
• Are the media criminogenic?
• Media effects
• Media and fear of crime
• Moral panics
• Mods and rockers
• Drug use and deviancy amplification
• Mugging
• Criticisms of moral panic theory
• Policing and the media
• The relationship between the police and the media
• The representation of policing
• Crime and the internet
• Policing cybercrime
• Representing terror
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 5 The politics of crime and its control
• Introduction
• The advent of ‘penal welfarism’
• End of the first bipartisan consensus
• Managerialism
• Centralisation
• The politics of crime and punishment in the USA
• The ‘war on drugs’
• Willie Horton and Michael Dukakis
• Penal populism in the UK
• Coalition and post-Coalition politics
• Conclusion
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• Part 2 Understanding crime: theories and concepts
• 6 Classicism and positivism
• Introduction
• Classical criminology
• Beccaria
• Jeremy Bentham
• The impact of classicism
• Positivism and criminology
• Defining positivism
• Cesare Lombroso
• Ferri and Garofalo
• Charles Goring
• Somatyping
• The impact of positivism
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 7 Biological positivism
• Introduction
• Genetic factors
• Eugenics and ‘feeble-mindedness’
• Twin studies
• Adoption
• Chromosomal anomalies
• Genetics and offending
• Biochemical factors
• Central nervous system
• ADHD and brain dysfunction
• Neurotransmitters
• Laterality
• Autonomic nervous system
• Hormones/testosterone
• Nutrition
• Assessing biological positivism
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 8 Psychological positivism
• Introduction
• Psychoanalysis and crime
• Bowlby and ‘maternal deprivation’
• Learning theories
• Differential association
• Operant learning
• Social learning theory
• Rational choice
• Routine activity theory
• Cognitive theories
• Yochelson and Samenow
• Piaget, Kohlberg, moral development and offending
• Eysenck’s biosocial theory
• Intelligence and offending
• Assessing psychological positivism
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 9 Durkheim, anomie and strain
• Introduction
• Durkheim and criminology
• Durkheim and social change
• Durkheim, suicide and anomie
• Assessing Durkheim
• Merton and anomie
• Anomie and the ‘American dream’
• Assessing Merton’s anomie theory
• Later strain theory
• Cloward and Ohlin
• General strain theory
• Messner and Rosenfeld
• Assessing strain theory
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 10 The Chicago School, subcultures and cultural criminology
• Introduction
• The Chicago School
• Social ecology
• Chicago School and crime
• The zonal hypothesis
• Shaw and McKay: cultural transmission
• Chicago Area Project
• Differential association
• Differential reinforcement
• Assessing the Chicago School
• Cultures and subcultures
• Albert Cohen
• Cloward and Ohlin
• David Matza
• Subcultural theory
• American subcultural theory
• British subcultural theory
• Assessing subcultural theory
• Cultural criminology
• Crime as culture
• Culture as crime
• Media dynamics of crime and control
• A critique of cultural criminology
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 11 Interactionism and labelling theory
• Introduction
• The emergence of labelling theory
• Primary and secondary deviance
• Becker’s outsiders
• Moral entrepreneurship
• ‘Becoming a marijuana user’
• Stigma
• Self-fulfilling prophecy
• Deviancy amplification
• Folk Devils and Moral Panics
• Braithwaite and ‘shaming’
• Assessing labelling theory
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 12 Control theories
• Introduction
• Reckless’s containment theory
• Inner containment
• Neutralisation and drift theory
• Drift
• Social bond theory
• Four elements of the social bond
• Testing social bond theory
• Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime
• Low self-control
• Assessing the general theory of crime
• Tittle’s control-balance theory
• Relating control-balance to crime
• Assessing control theory
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• 13 Radical and critical criminology
• Introduction
• Crime and the underdog
• Marx and Marxism
• Willem Bonger
• American radicalism
• Vold and criminalisation
• Austin Turk
• William Chambliss
• From conflict to peacemaking
• Radical criminology in Britain
• The new criminology
• Contemporary radical criminology
• Zemiology and social harm
• Assessing radical criminology
• Teleology
• Determinism
• Idealism
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 14 Realist criminology
• Introduction
• Left realism
• The critique of ‘left idealism’
• The nature of left realism
• What Is To Be Done about Law & Order?
• Left realism and method
• Assessing left realism
• Right realism
• Thinking about Crime
• Distinguishing left and right realism
• Wilson and Herrnstein
• Murray and the ‘underclass’
• Assessing right realism
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 15 Contemporary classicism
• Introduction
• Rational choice theory
• Clarke and Cornish
• Bounded rationality
• Crime scripts
• Routine activity theory
• Routine activity and crime trends
• Routine activity theory elaborated
• Situational crime prevention
• Defensible space and problem-oriented policing
• Problem-oriented policing
• Crime and opportunity
• Crime science
• Assessing contemporary classicism
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 16 Feminist criminology
• Introduction
• Early criminology and the female offender
• Lombroso and Ferrero
• W.I. Thomas and Otto Pollak
• Sociological criminology and the continued invisibility of women
• Development of modern feminist criminology
• Female emancipation and crime
• Carol Smart and feminist criminology
• Contemporary feminist criminology
• Understanding women’s involvement in crime
• Women, prison and punishment
• The nature of women’s imprisonment
• Criminalisation of women
• A feminist methodology?
• Feminist victimology
• Assessing feminist criminology
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 17 Late modernity, governmentality and risk
• The transition to late modernity
• Surveillance
• Changes in property relations
• A new regulatory state?
• Foucault and governmentality
• Discipline and Punish
• Governmentality theory
• The dispersal of discipline
• The discipline of Disney World
• Risk and the new culture of control
• Garland and The Culture of Control
• Risk, crime and criminal justice
• Assessing governmentality, the new penology and risk
• Governmentality
• The new penology
• Risk
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• Part 3 Understanding crime: types and trends
• 18 Victims, victimisation and victimology
• Understanding victims and victimology
• The victim of crime
• The emergence of victimology
• Victim-precipitation
• Victim-blaming
• Approaches to victimology
• Positivist victimology
• Radical victimology
• Critical victimology
• The nature of victimisation
• The extent of victimisation
• Repeat victimisation
• Victimisation and the vulnerable
• Victimisation and the homeless
• Victimisation and the elderly
• The impact of victimisation
• Physical impact
• Behavioural impact
• Emotional and psychological impact
• Financial impact
• Fear of crime
• Victims policy
• Criminal injuries compensation
• Court-ordered compensation
• Feminism and ‘secondary victimisation’
• Child abuse
• Victim Support
• Victims’ rights?
• One-stop shop and victim statements
• Victim personal statements
• Rebalancing the criminal justice system?
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 19 White-collar and corporate crime
• Introduction
• Edwin Sutherland and white-collar crime
• Distinguishing between white-collar and corporate crime
• Exploring white-collar crime
• Theft at work
• Fraud
• Employment offences
• Consumer offences
• Food offences
• Environmental crime
• State-corporate crime
• Explaining white-collar and corporate crime
• Differential association
• Self-control
• Neutralisation
• Critical theory
• Shaming
• Understanding white-collar crime
• White-collar offenders
• Victims of white-collar crime
• The extent of white-collar crime
• The impact of white-collar crime
• Understanding impact: the qualitative dimension
• Controlling white-collar crime
• Regulating white-collar crime
• Self-regulation
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 20 Organised crime
• Defining organised crime
• Traditional forms of organised crime
• The Mafia
• Triads
• The Yakuza
• Organised crime in America
• The organisation of organised crime
• An alien conspiracy theory
• The ethnic succession thesis
• How organised was American organised crime?
• Organised crime in Britain
• Transnational organised crime
• Human trafficking and migrant smuggling
• Drug trafficking
• Transnational crime control
• Transnational policing
• Europol
• Understanding organised crime
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 21 Violent and property crime
• Understanding violent crime
• Types of violent crime
• Homicide
• Trends in homicide
• Homicide offenders
• Victims of homicide
• Motive and relationship
• Use of weapons
• Homicide and social status
• Serial killers
• Robbery
• Armed robbery
• Street robbery
• Sexual offences
• Stalking
• Monitoring sex offenders
• Violent crime and weapons
• Trends in violent crime
• Contemporary trends
• Riots
• Hate crime
• The emergence of ‘hate crime’
• Extent of hate crime and the criminal justice response
• What is the motivation behind hate crime?
• Why hate crime?
• Property crime
• Trends in property crime
• Burglary
• Trends in burglary
• Distraction burglary
• Burglars on burglary
• Crimes against retail and manufacturing premises
• Car crime
• Injuries and deaths on the road
• Measuring car crime
• Joyriding
• Thinking about violent and volume crime
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 22 Drugs and alcohol
• Introduction
• What are drugs?
• Changing official attitudes toward drugs
• Who uses drugs?
• Trends in drug use
• The normalisation debate
• Drugs and crime
• Drug use causes crime
• Crime causes drug use
• A common cause?
• A reciprocal relationship?
• No causal relationship?
• Drugs and criminal justice
• Drug testing
• Drugs and policing
• Alcohol
• Patterns of consumption
• Young people and alcohol
• Young people, alcohol and moral panic
• Alcohol, crime and criminal justice
• The legal situation
• Alcohol and crime
• Costs of alcohol misuse and alcohol-related crime
• Government alcohol policy
• Drugs, alcohol and crime
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• Part 4 Understanding criminal justice
• 23 Penology and punishment
• What is punishment?
• Utilitarian or consequentialist approaches
• Deterrence
• General deterrence
• Individual deterrence
• Rehabilitation
• Incapacitation
• Retributivism
• Just deserts
• The sociology of punishment
• Émile Durkheim
• Max Weber
• Marxism
• Norbert Elias
• Michel Foucault
• The impact of Foucault
• Conclusion: an era of mass incarceration?
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 24 Understanding criminal justice
• Government and criminal justice
• Home Office
• Home Secretary
• Ministry of Justice
• Attorney General’s Office
• The criminal justice system
• Major agencies, organisations and actors
• The police
• Crown Prosecution Service (CPS)
• Probation
• Youth Offending Teams
• Prisons
• Criminal courts
• Criminal Cases Review Commission (CCRC)
• Community Safety Partnerships (CSPs)
• Criminal Injuries Compensation Authority (CICA)
• Forensic Science Service (FSS)
• Parole Board
• Volunteers in the criminal justice system
• Criminal justice in Scotland
• Is it really a system?
• The criminal justice process
• Fixed penalty notices
• Expenditure and employment
• Management and oversight in criminal justice
• New public management
• Youth Justice Board
• Inspectorates
• Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary for England, Wales and Northern Ireland (HMIC)
• Her Majesty’s Crown Prosecution Service Inspectorate (HMCPSI)
• Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Prisons for England and Wales (HMIP)
• Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Probation for England and Wales (HMI Probation)
• Prisons and Probation Ombudsman
• Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC)
• Politics and criminal justice reform
• Understanding criminal justice
• Adversarial versus inquisitorial systems
• Due process versus crime control
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 25 Crime prevention and community safety
• Defining crime prevention
• Crime prevention as a policy issue
• ‘Five Towns’ and ‘Safer Cities’
• Neighbourhood Watch
• From crime prevention to community safety
• Crime and Disorder Act 1998
• From community safety to crime reduction
• Reviewing the Crime and Disorder Act
• Anti-social behaviour
• ‘Broken Windows’
• The anti-social behaviour and respect agendas
• Crime prevention in practice
• Situational crime prevention
• Displacement
• Social and community crime prevention
• Criminality prevention
• Risk-focused prevention
• The Perry Pre-School Project
• Cognitive-behavioural interventions with young people
• Community approaches and prevention
• Operation Ceasefire
• Mentoring
• Analysis for crime prevention
• Hot spots
• Repeat victimisation
• Kirkholt Burglary Prevention Project
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 26 Policing
• The organisation of policing
• Understanding policing
• What do the police do?
• Criminal investigation
• National Intelligence Model (NIM)
• Investigation and forensics
• Police powers
• Stop and search
• Arrest
• Detention at the police station
• Right to silence
• Models of policing
• Community policing
• Problem-oriented policing
• Intelligence-led policing
• A brief history of policing
• Emergence of the ‘new police’
• The Royal Commission on the Police
• Problems of legitimacy
• Centralisation
• Key themes in policing
• Police culture
• Zero-tolerance policing
• Police corruption
• The causes of police corruption
• Police governance
• Plural policing
• A revolution in policing?
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 27 Criminal courts and the court process
• Introduction
• The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS)
• Sufficient evidence
• The public interest
• Downgrading of charges
• Discontinuance
• Magistrates’ courts
• The magistracy
• The Crown Court
• The judiciary
• Juries
• Pre-trial decisions
• Bail and remand
• Bail
• Remand
• Offending while on bail
• Mode of trial decision
• Defendants’ rights
• Pleas and bargaining
• Charge bargaining
• Plea bargaining
• Evidence
• Disclosure
• Exclusion
• Appeals
• Miscarriages of justice
• Criminal Cases Review Commission (CCRC)
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 28 Sentencing and non-custodial penalties
• Introduction
• Types of sentence
• Discharges
• Fines and other financial penalties
• Community punishment
• The community rehabilitation order
• The community punishment order
• The community order
• The suspended sentence of imprisonment
• Sentencing policy
• The Criminal Justice Act 1991
• Sentencing reform after the 1991 Act
• The Crime (Sentences) Act 1997
• Sentencing reform under New Labour
• The Auld Review of Criminal Courts
• The Halliday Review
• Justice for All
• Criminal Justice Act 2003
• Sentencing reform under the Coalition government
• Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012
• Offender Rehabilitation Act 2014
• Trends in non-custodial sentencing
• Probation
• Punishment in the community
• Crime, Justice and Protecting the Public
• New Labour and probation
• The probation service and ‘what works’
• A national probation service
• The Carter Review and the emergence of NOMS
• The Coalition and Transforming Rehabilitation
• Conclusion
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 29 Prisons and imprisonment
• The rise of the prison
• Imprisonment in Britain
• Prison security
• Strangeways and Woolf
• Trends in imprisonment
• Imprisonment and penal politics
• International trends
• Capital punishment
• The prison system
• Types of prison
• Private prisons
• Life on the inside
• Prisoners
• Incarceration and social exclusion
• Violence in prison
• Prison officers
• Release from prison
• Governance, accountability and human rights
• Independent inspection
• Grievance or complaints procedures
• Human rights and imprisonment
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 30 Youth crime and youth justice
• Youth crime
• Persistent young offenders
• Trends in youth crime
• Ethnic minority youth and crime
• Drug use and crime
• Victimisation
• Youth justice
• Childhood and punishment
• Emergence of a juvenile justice system
• The tide turns
• The punitive shift
• The rise of managerialism
• A new youth justice?
• Youth Offending Teams (YOTs)
• Non-custodial penalties
• Anti-social behaviour
• Restorative justice and referral orders
• Youth justice after New Labour
• Young people and the 2011 riots
• Contemporary youth justice
• Anti-social behaviour
• Young people and imprisonment
• Young offenders, custody and vulnerability
• Community alternatives
• Referral orders and restorative youth justice
• Young people, crime and justice
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 31 Restorative justice
• Introduction
• Conflicts as property
• Criminal justice and restorative justice
• Defining restorative justice
• The objectives of restorative justice
• Victim involvement
• Community involvement
• Offender reintegration
• Types of restorative justice
• Court-based restitutive and reparative measures
• Victim-offender mediation (VOM)
• Restorative conferencing
• Healing and sentencing circles
• Healing circles
• Sentencing circles
• Citizens’ panels and community boards
• Assessing restorativeness
• The limits of restorative justice?
• Restorative justice and corporate crime
• Restorative justice and violence against women
• Assessing restorative justice
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• Part 5 Critical issues in criminology
• 32 Race, crime and criminal justice
• Introduction
• Sources of data
• Ethnicity and victimisation
• Victimisation and risk
• Fear of crime
• Racist hate crimes
• Racist offenders
• Community, conflict and cohesion
• Ethnicity and offending
• Self-reported offending
• Anti-social behaviour
• Drug use
• Experience of the criminal justice system
• Stop and search
• Racism and stop and search
• Ethnicity and policing
• From Scarman to Lawrence
• Cautioning, arrest and sentencing
• Ethnicity and imprisonment
• Treatment in custody
• Deaths in custody
• Views of the criminal justice system
• Minority representation in the criminal justice system
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 33 Gender, crime and justice
• Female and male offending
• Reasons for offending
• Women and the criminal justice process
• Cautioning, arrest and prosecution
• The use of custody
• Women in prison
• Mothers in prison
• Understanding women and criminal justice
• Women in the criminal justice system: the future
• Victimisation
• Fear of crime
• Violence against women
• Domestic violence
• The perpetrators
• Policing rape and domestic violence
• Policy changes
• Attrition
• Women’s role in social control
• Women in the police
• Women in the probation and prison services (NOMS)
• Women and the legal professions
• Masculinity, men and victimisation
• Male victimisation
• Conclusion
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 34 Criminal and forensic psychology
• Psychology and criminology
• History of psychology and criminology
• Individual factors in crime
• Risk and protective factors
• Individual risk factors
• Family factors
• Socio-economic, peer, school and community factors
• Risk factors and crime prevention
• Developmental or life course criminology
• Sampson and Laub
• Moffitt’s theory of offending types
• Farrington’s ICAP theory
• Mental disorder and crime
• The prevalence of mental disorders
• Mental disorder and offending
• Understanding mental disorder and crime
• Policing and psychology
• Offender profiling
• Assessing profiling
• Legal and ethical issues
• Crime analysis
• Investigative interviewing
• Confessions
• Lying and lie detection
• Statement validity analysis
• The courtroom and psychology
• Recall/eyewitness testimony
• Vulnerable witnesses
• Children as witnesses
• Juries
• Juries and evidence
• Juries and other influences
• Jury composition
• Decision-making
• Treatment of offenders and ‘what works’
• Cognitive skills programmes
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 35 Green criminology
• Introduction
• Theoretical concerns
• Late modern capitalism and neo-liberalism
• Globalisation and risk
• Thinking about environmental harm
• Environmental harms
• Air pollution
• Deforestation
• Water pollution
• Resource depletion
• Climate change
• Animal abuse
• A green victimology?
• State, organised crime and the environment
• Regulation and control
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 36 Globalisation, terrorism and human rights
• Globalisation
• Globalisation and criminology
• Criminalising migration
• Terrorism
• What is terrorism?
• Terrorism in Britain
• The new international terrorism
• Special powers for special circumstances?
• Control orders and the PATRIOT Act
• Terrorism and the ‘new wars’
• Private military industry
• Privatised security in Iraq
• State crime
• Genocide
• Cambodia
• Rwanda
• Bosnia
• War as crime and war crimes
• Human rights
• Origins of human rights
• Human rights in the twentieth century
• Human rights in Britain
• The Human Rights Act 1998
• The impact of the Human Rights Act
• Criminology and human rights
• Dealing with human rights abuses
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• Part 6 Doing criminology
• 37 Understanding criminological research
• Introduction
• Research methods
• Surveys
• Questionnaire design
• Interviews
• Focus groups
• Ethnography
• Documentary analysis
• Case studies
• Sampling
• Random (or probability) sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Quota sampling
• Purposive sampling
• Convenience sampling
• Snowball sampling
• Statistics
• Descriptive statistics
• Numerical and categorical data
• Normal distribution
• Correlation
• Probability and significance
• Controversy: evaluation and experimentation
• Experimental methods
• Quasi-experimental methods
• Evaluation research
• Questions for further discussion
• Further reading
• Websites
• 38 Doing criminological research
• Introduction
• Choosing a topic
• Doing a literature review
• Selecting methods
• Theory and research
• Hypothetico-deductive theory
• Grounded theory
• Negotiating access
• Research governance/ethics
• Pilot research
• Writing
• Beginning to write
• Write clearly
• Decent prose
• Plagiarism
• Time management
• Further reading
• Publisher’s acknowledgements
• Glossary
• Bibliography
• Index