Efnisyfirlit

• Cover
• Half title
• Frontispiece
• Title page
• Imprints page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Preface
• Coverage
• Acknowledgments to First Edition
• Acknowledgments to Second Edition
• Chapter 1 Introduction
• 1.1 Formation of Earth’s Chemical Elements in Supernovae
• 1.2 Birth of the Solar System and Earth
• 1.3 Accretion and Early History of the Earth
• 1.4 Internal Structure of the Earth
• 1.5 Cooling of the Planet and Plate Tectonics
• 1.6 Plate Tectonics and the Formation of Rocks
• 1.6.1 Divergent Plate Boundaries
• 1.6.2 Convergent Plate Boundaries
• 1.6.3 Transform Boundaries
• 1.6.4 Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots
• 1.7 Outline of Subsequent Chapters
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Online Resources
• Further Reading
• Chapter 2 Materials of the Solid Earth
• 2.1 Definition of a Mineral
• 2.1.1 Examples of Some Familiar Minerals
• 2.2 How Are Minerals Classified?
• 2.3 How Are Minerals Named?
• 2.4 What Is a Crystal, and What Is the Crystalline State?
• 2.5 What Is a Rock?
• 2.6 How Do Rocks Form? Classification into Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic
• 2.7 Examples of Some Familiar Rocks
• 2.8 Plate Tectonics and the Generation of Rocks
• 2.8.1 Midocean-ridge Rock Factory
• 2.8.2 Convergent-plate-boundary Rock Factory
• 2.8.3 Continental Divergent-plate-boundary Rock Factory (Rift Valley)
• 2.8.4 Mantle Plume Hot-spot Rock Factory
• 2.8.5 Passive-margin Rock Factories
• 2.8.6 Epeiric-sea Rock Factories
• 2.8.7 Metamorphic Rock Factories
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Online Resources
• Further Reading
• Chapter 3 How Are Minerals Identified?
• 3.1 Habit
• 3.2 State of Aggregation
• 3.3 Color and Luster
• 3.3.1 Reasons for Color
• Play of Color
• Chatoyancy, Labradorescence, and Asterism
• Fluorescence
• Streak
• 3.4 Cleavage
• 3.5 Hardness
• 3.6 Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
• 3.6.1 Specific Gravity and Atomic Structure
• 3.7 Magnetism, Solubility in Acid, and Radioactivity
• Magnetism
• Solubility in HCl
• Radioactivity
• 3.8 Instrumental Methods for the Quantitative Characterization of Minerals
• 3.8.1 X-Ray Powder Diffraction
• 3.8.2 Electron Beam Techniques: Scanning Electron Microscopy, Electron Microprobe Analysis, and Transmission Electron Microscopy
• Mineral Composition
• Electron Microprobe
• Transmission Electron Microscopy
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Further Reading
• Chapter 4 Fundamentals of Crystal Structures
• 4.1 Naturally Occurring Chemical Elements
• 4.2 Atomic and Ionic Radii
• 4.3 What Factors Control the Packing of Ions (and Atoms) in Mineral Structures?
• 4.4 Pauling’s Rules
• Rule 1. The Coordination Principle
• Rule 2. The Electrostatic Valency Principle
• Rule 3. Sharing of Polyhedral Elements (I)
• Rule 4. Sharing of Polyhedral Elements (II)
• Rule 5. The Principle of Parsimony
• 4.5 What Forces Hold Crystal Structures Together?
• 4.5.1 Electronic Configuration of Atoms and Ions
• 4.5.2 Chemical Bonding
• Covalent Bonding
• Ionic Bonding
• Metallic Bonding
• Van der Waals Bonding
• 4.6 Atomic Substitutions
• 4.6.1 Factors Responsible for the Extent of Atomic Substitution (Solid Solution)
• The size of the atoms or ions:
• The charge on the ions:
• The temperature at which atomic substitution occurs.
• The availability of the ions
• 4.6.2 Types of Solid Solution
• Substitutional solid solution.
• Interstitial solid solution.
• Omission solid solution
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Further Reading
• Chapter 5 Introduction to Crystallography
• 5.1 Symmetry Elements and Operations
• Mirrors
• Rotation Axes
• Center of Symmetry
• Rotoinversion Axes
• 5.2 Combinations of Symmetry Elements
• 5.3 The Six Crystal Systems
• 5.3.1 Crystallographic Axes
• 5.3.2 Hermann–Mauguin Symmetry Notation
• 5.3.3 Crystallographic Notation for Planes in Crystals
• 5.3.4 Definition of Crystal Form
• 5.3.5 Crystallographic Notation for Directions in Crystals
• 5.4 Crystal Projections
• 5.5 Seven of the Thirty-two Point Groups
• 4/m3¯2/m
• 6/m2/m2/m
• 3¯2/m
• 4/m2/m2/m
• 2/m2/m2/m
• 2/m
• 1¯
• 5.6 Twins
• 5.7 Some Aspects of Space Groups
• Translation
• Screw Axes
• Glide Planes
• 5.7.1 Space Groups
• 5.8 Polymorphism
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Further Reading
• Chapter 6 Minerals and Rocks Observed under the Polarizing Optical Microscope
• 6.1 Light and the Polarizing Microscope
• The Components of the Petrographic Microscope
• 6.2 Passage of Light through a Crystal: Refractive Index and Angle of Refraction
• The Example of Apatite
• 6.3 Passage of Polarized Light through Minerals
• Looking at Anisotropic Minerals
• 6.4 Accessory Plates and Determination of Fast and Slow Vibration Directions
• 6.5 Extinction Positions and the Sign of Elongation
• 6.6 Anomalous Interference Colors, Pleochroism, and Absorption
• 6.7 Mineral Identification Chart
• 6.8 Uniaxial Optical Indicatrix
• The Example of Zircon
• 6.9 Biaxial Optical Indicatrix
• 6.10 Uniaxial Interference Figures
• The Example of Quartz
• 6.11 Determination of Optic Sign from Uniaxial Optic Axis Figure
• 6.12 Biaxial Interference Figures, Optic Sign, and Optic Angle (2V)
• The Example of Muscovite
• 6.13 Modal Analysis
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Online Resources
• Further Reading
• Chapter 7 Igneous Rock-forming Minerals
• 7.1 Common Chemical Elements in the Earth’s Crust and in Mineral and Rock Analyses
• 7.2 Calculation of Mineral Formulas
• 7.3 Triangular Diagrams
• 7.4 Systematic Mineralogical Descriptions of Common Igneous Minerals
• 7.5 Plagioclase Feldspar: NaAlSi3O8–CaAl2Si2O8albite(Ab)anorthite(An)
• 7.6 K-Feldspar: KAlSi3O8 with Three Polymorphs (Microcline, Orthoclase, and Sanidine)
• 7.7 Quartz: SiO2 and Polymorphs Tridymite, Cristobalite, Coesite, and Stishovite
• 7.8 Nepheline: (Na,K)AlSiO4
• 7.9 Leucite: KAlSi2O6
• 7.10 Sodalite: Na4Al3Si3O12Cl
• 7.11 Enstatite: MgSiO3−(Mg,Fe)SiO3
• 7.12 Pigeonite: ~Ca0.25(Mg,Fe)1.75Si2O6
• 7.13 Augite: (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
• 7.14 Aegirine: NaFe3+Si2O6
• 7.15 Hornblende: (Na,K)0−1Ca2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH)2
• 7.16 Muscovite: KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
• 7.17 Phlogopite: KMg3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
• 7.18 Biotite: K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
• 7.19 Olivine: (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
• 7.20 Zircon: ZrSiO4
• 7.21 Tourmaline: (Na,Ca,K)(Fe2+,Mg,Al,Mn,Li)3(Al,Fe3+)6(BO3)3(Si6O18)(OH)3(O,OH,F)
• 7.22 Allanite: (Ca,Ce)2(Al,Fe2+,Fe3+)3(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)
• 7.23 Melilite: (Ca,Na)2(Mg,Al)(Si,Al)2O7
• 7.24 Magnetite: Fe3O4
• 7.25 Chromite: FeCr2O4
• 7.26 Hematite: Fe2O3
• 7.27 Ilmenite: FeTiO3
• 7.28 Rutile: TiO2
• 7.29 Uraninite: UO2
• 7.30 Pyrite: FeS2
• 7.31 Pyrrhotite: Fe1-xS
• 7.32 Chalcopyrite: CuFeS2
• 7.33 Apatite: Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl)
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Further Reading
• Chapter 8 The Direction and Rate of Natural Processes: An Introduction to Thermodynamics and Kinetics
• 8.1 Basic Thermodynamic Terms
• System
• Heat and Work
• Variables
• 8.2 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics
• 8.3 Entropy and the Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics
• 8.4 Gibbs Free Energy
• 8.5 Variation of Gibbs Free Energy with Temperature and Pressure
• 8.6 Variation of Gibbs Free Energy with Composition
• 8.7 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
• 8.8 Thermodynamic Phase Diagrams
• 8.9 Multicomponent Phase Diagrams
• 8.9.1 A Simple Two-component System H2O–NaCl
• 8.9.2 Melting of a Pair of Minerals: the Eutectic
• Melting and Crystallization in a Simple Eutectic Phase Diagram
• Igneous Textures Related to a Eutectic
• 8.9.3 Congruent Melting and the Granite and Nepheline Syenite Eutectics
• 8.9.4 Incongruent Melting and the Peritectic
• 8.9.5 Melting Relations of Solid Solutions
• Melting and Crystallizing Olivine
• Melting and Crystallizing Plagioclase
• Melting and Crystallizing Alkali Feldspars
• 8.9.6 A Simple Ternary Phase Diagram
• 8.9.7 The Ternary Quartz–Albite–Orthoclase “Granite” System
• 8.9.8 A Simple Ternary Basalt System: Diopside–Albite–Anorthite
• 8.9.9 More Complex Phase Diagrams
• 8.10 Rates of Geologic Processes
• 8.10.1 Transport Laws
• 8.10.2 Rates of Activated Processes and the Arrhenius Relation
• 8.11 Radioactive Decay
• 8.11.1 Rate of Radioactive Decay
• 8.11.2 Calculation of Absolute Age Based on Radioactive Decay
• 8.11.3 Absolute Dating by the 87Rb to 87Sr Decay
• 8.11.4 Absolute Dating by the 40K to 40Ar Decay
• 8.11.5 Absolute Dating Using Uranium and Lead
• 8.11.6 Absolute Dating by the 147Sm to 143Nd Decay
• 8.11.7 Blocking Temperature
• 8.11.8 Absolute Dating by the Fission-track Method
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Online Resources
• Further Reading
• Chapter 9 How Do Igneous Rocks Form?
• 9.1 Why, and How, Does Solid Rock Become Molten?
• 9.1.1 Composition of the Upper Mantle
• 9.1.2 Melting Range of Upper Mantle Peridotite
• 9.1.3 Latent Heat of Fusion
• 9.1.4 Geothermal Gradient and the Geotherm
• 9.2 Three Primary Causes of Melting and their Plate Tectonic Settings
• 9.2.1 Raising the Temperature of Mantle Peridotite to the Melting Range over Hot Spots
• 9.2.2 Decompression Melting at Divergent Plate Boundaries
• 9.2.3 Fluxing with Water at Convergent Plate Boundaries (Subduction Zones)
• 9.3 Effect of Pressure on Melting
• 9.3.1 Pressure in the Earth
• 9.3.2 Effect of Pressure on the Anhydrous Melting of Rock
• 9.3.3 Hydrous Melting of Rock and the Solubility of Water in Magma
• 9.3.4 Effect of Water Undersaturation on the Melting of Rocks
• 9.3.5 Solubility of Other Gases in Magma
• 9.3.6 Exsolution of Magmatic Gases and Explosive Volcanism
• 9.4 Physical Properties of Magma
• 9.4.1 Magma Density
• 9.4.2 Magma Viscosity
• 9.4.3 Diffusion in Magma, Crystal Growth, and Grain Size of Igneous Rocks
• 9.5 Magma Ascent
• 9.5.1 Buoyancy
• 9.5.2 Buoyant Rise of Magma
• 9.6 Processes Associated with the Solidification of Magma in the Crust
• 9.6.1 Cooling of Bodies of Magma by Heat Conduction
• Generalizations about the Cooling of Igneous Bodies
• Effect of Latent Heat of Crystallization on Cooling of Magma
• 9.6.2 Cooling of Bodies of Magma by Convection and Radiation
• 9.6.3 Magmatic Differentiation by Crystal Settling
• Igneous Cumulates
• Igneous Layering
• 9.6.4 Compaction of Crystal Mush
• 9.6.5 Assimilation and Fractional Crystallization
• Assimilation by Reaction
• 9.6.6 Liquid Immiscibility
• 9.7 Evolution of Isotopic Reservoirs in the Earth and the Source of Magma
• 9.7.1 Evolution of 143Nd/144Nd Reservoirs in the Bulk Earth, Mantle, and Crust
• 9.7.2 Evolution of 87Sr/86Sr Reservoirs in the Bulk Earth, Mantle, and Crust
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Online Resources
• Further Reading
• Chapter 10 Igneous Rocks
• 10.1 Why an Igneous Rock Classification Is Necessary
• 10.2 Mode of Occurrence of Igneous Rocks
• 10.2.1 Shallow Intrusive Igneous Bodies: Dikes, Sills, Laccoliths, Cone Sheets, Ring Dikes, and Diatremes
• Dikes, Sills, and Laccoliths
• Cone Sheets and Ring Dikes
• Diatremes
• 10.2.2 Plutonic Igneous Bodies: Lopoliths, Batholiths, and Stocks
• Lopoliths
• Batholiths
• Stocks
• 10.2.3 Extrusive Igneous Bodies: Flood Basalts, Shield Volcanoes, Composite Volcanoes, Domes, Calderas, Ash-fall and Ash-flow Deposits
• Flood Basalts
• Shield Volcanoes
• Composite Volcanoes
• Domes
• Calderas
• Ash Falls and Ash Flows
• 10.3 International Union of Geological Sciences Classification of Igneous Rocks
• 10.3.1 Mode and Norm
• 10.3.2 IUGS Classification of Igneous Rocks
• 10.3.3 Composition of Common Plutonic Igneous Rocks
• 10.3.4 IUGS Classification of Volcanic Igneous Rocks
• 10.3.5 Irvine–Baragar Classification of Volcanic Rocks
• 10.4 Igneous Rocks and their Plate Tectonic Setting
• 10.4.1 Igneous Rocks Formed at Midocean-ridge Divergent Plate Boundaries
• 10.4.2 Igneous Rocks of Oceanic Islands Formed above Hot Spots
• 10.4.3 Continental Flood Basalts and Large Igneous Provinces
• 10.4.4 Alkaline Igneous Rocks Associated with Continental Rift Valleys
• 10.4.5 Igneous Rocks Formed near Convergent Plate Boundaries
• Volcanic Arcs
• Calcalkaline Magma Production above a Subducting Plate
• Calcalkaline Volcanic Rocks
• Calcalkaline Plutonic Rocks
• 10.5 Special Precambrian Associations
• 10.5.1 Komatiites
• 10.5.2 Massif-type Anorthosites
• 10.5.3 Rocks Associated with Large Meteorite Impacts
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Online Resources
• Further Reading
• Chapter 11 Sedimentary Rock-forming Minerals and Materials
• 11.1 The Interaction of the Earth’s Atmosphere with Minerals
• 11.2 Ice: H2O
• 11.3 Goethite: FeO(OH)
• 11.4 Kaolinite: Al2Si2O5(OH)4
• 11.5 Calcite: CaCO3
• 11.6 Aragonite: CaCO3
• 11.7 Dolomite: CaMg(CO3)2
• 11.8 Magnesite: MgCO3
• 11.9 Siderite: FeCO3
• 11.10 Rhodochrosite: MnCO3
• 11.11 Halite: NaCl
• 11.12 Sylvite: KCl
• 11.13 Gypsum: CaSO4·2H2O
• 11.14 Anhydrite: CaSO4
• 11.15 Chert and Agate: Both Made of Very Fine-grained SiO2
• 11.16 Phosphorite
• 11.17 Soil
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Further Reading
• Chapter 12 Formation, Transport, and Lithification of Sediment
• 12.1 Importance of Sediments in Understanding the History of the Earth
• 12.2 Sediment Formed from Weathering of Rock
• 12.2.1 Role of Carbon Dioxide in Weathering
• 12.2.2 Weathering Products of Rock
• 12.2.3 Detrital Grain Size
• 12.2.4 Detrital Grain Roundness and Resistance to Abrasion
• 12.3 Organically Produced Sediment
• 12.3.1 Formation of Carbonate and Siliceous Sediment
• Deepwater Calcareous and Siliceous Sediment
• 12.3.2 Formation of Hydrocarbons in Sediment
• 12.4 Chemically produced sediment
• 12.5 Sediment Produced by Glacial Erosion
• 12.6 Transport of Sediment
• 12.6.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
• 12.6.2 Movement of Particles by Fluid Flow
• Rolling
• Saltation
• Suspension of Sedimentary Particles and Stokes’ Law
• Bedforms
• 12.6.3 Movement of particles in turbidity currents
• 12.6.4 Movement of Sediment in Debris Flows
• 12.7 Layering in Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
• 12.7.1 Law of Superposition
• 12.7.2 Milankovitch Cycles
• 12.7.3 Sediments Related to Tectonic Processes
• Marine Transgressions and Regressions
• 12.8 Sites of Deposition and Tectonic Significance
• 12.8.1 Convergent Plate Boundaries
• 12.8.2 Passive Continental Margins
• 12.8.3 Rift and Pull-apart Basins
• 12.9 Conversion of Unconsolidated Sediment to Sedimentary Rock: Lithification
• 12.9.1 Porosity and compaction
• 12.9.2 Cementation of Sediment
• 12.9.3 Pressure Solution
• 12.9.4 Recrystallization, Replacement, Dolomitization
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Online Resources
• Further Reading
• Chapter 13 Sedimentary Rock Classification, Occurrence, and Plate Tectonic Significance
• 13.1 Siliciclastic Sedimentary Rocks
• 13.1.1 Mudrocks (Includes Shales)
• Tectonic Setting for Deposition of Mudrocks
• 13.1.2 Sandstones
• Quartz Arenites
• Feldspathic Arenites (Arkose)
• Lithic Arenites
• Wackes (Graywacke)
• 13.1.3 Conglomerates and Breccias
• 13.2 Carbonate Sedimentary Rocks
• 13.2.1 Limestones
• Grainstone
• Mudstones to Packstones
• Boundstones
• Lacustrine Limestones
• Tufa, Travertine, and Caliche
• 13.2.2 Dolostones
• 13.2.3 Tectonic Settings of Carbonate Rocks
• 13.3 Coals
• 13.4 Oil and Natural Gas
• 13.5 Evaporites
• 13.6 Phosphorites
• 13.7 Iron-formations
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Online Resources
• Further Reading
• Chapter 14 Metamorphic Rock-forming Minerals
• 14.1 Systematic Mineralogical Descriptions of Common Metamorphic Minerals
• 14.2 Garnet: (Mg2+,Fe2+,Mn2+)3Al2Si3O12 and Ca3(Fe3+,Al3+,Cr3+)2Si3O12
• 14.3 Andalusite: Al2SiO5
• 14.4 Sillimanite: Al2SiO5
• 14.5 Kyanite: Al2SiO5
• 14.6 Staurolite: Fe3−4Al18Si8O48H2−4
• 14.7 Diopside: CaMgSi2O6
• 14.8 Anthophyllite: Mg7Si8O22(OH)2
• 14.9 Cummingtonite–Grunerite: Fe2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2−Fe7Si8O22(OH)2
• 14.10 Tremolite–Ferroactinolite: Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2−Ca2Fe5Si8O22(OH)2
• 14.11 Glaucophane: Na2Mg3Al2Si8O22(OH)2
• 14.12 Wollastonite: CaSiO3
• 14.13 Rhodonite: MnSiO3
• 14.14 Talc: Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
• 14.15 Chlorite: (Mg, Al, Fe)6(Si, Al)4O10·(OH)8
• 14.16 Antigorite: Mg3Si2O5(OH)4
• 14.17 Chrysotile: Mg3Si2O5(OH)4
• 14.18 Graphite: C
• 14.19 Epidote: Ca2Fe3+Al2O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH) Clinozoisite: Ca2Al3O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)
• 14.20 Cordierite: (Mg,Fe)2Al4Si5O18·nH2O
• 14.21 Vesuvianite: Ca19(Al,Mg,Fe)13(Si2O7)4(SiO4)10(O,OH,F)10
• 14.22 Titanite (sphene): CaTiSiO5
• 14.23 Scapolite: 3NaAlSi3O8·NaCl−3CaAl2Si2O8·CaSO4 (or ·CaCO3)
• 14.24 Lawsonite: CaAl2(Si2O7)(OH)2·H2O
• 14.25 Pumpellyite: Ca2MgAl2(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)2·H2O
• 14.26 Topaz: Al2SiO4(F,OH)2
• 14.27 Corundum: Al2O3
• 14.28 Chabazite: Ca2Al2Si4O12·6H2O
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Further Reading
• Chapter 15 Metamorphic Rocks
• 15.1 What Changes Occur during Metamorphism?
• 15.1.1 An Example of Metamorphic Change
• 15.2 Why Do Rocks Change?
• 15.2.1 The Gibbs Free Energy, the Driving Force for Metamorphic Change
• 15.2.2 Rates of Metamorphic Reactions
• 15.2.3 The Gibbs Phase Rule and the Number of Minerals a Metamorphic Rock Can Contain
• 15.3 Metamorphic Grade and Facies
• 15.4 Textures of Metamorphic Rocks
• 15.4.1 Textures of Contact Metamorphic Rocks
• 15.4.2 Deformation and Textures of Regional Metamorphic Rocks
• Slate, Phyllite, Schist, and Gneiss
• Migration of Material during the Development of Foliation
• Growth of Metamorphic Minerals during Shear
• 15.5 Simple Descriptive Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
• 15.6 Metamorphism of Mudrock
• 15.6.1 Graphical Representation of a Simple Metamorphic Reaction
• 15.6.2 A Simple Pressure–Temperature Petrogenetic Grid
• 15.6.3 Metamorphic Field Gradients
• 15.6.4 Graphical Representation of Mineral Assemblages in Metapelites
• 15.6.5 Mineral Assemblages in Barrow’s Metamorphic Zones and Part of the Petrogenetic Grid for Metapelites
• 15.7 Metamorphism of Impure Dolomitic Limestone
• 15.8 Metamorphism and Partial Melting: Migmatites
• 15.9 Geothermometers and Geobarometers
• 15.10 Plate Tectonic Significance of Metamorphism
• 15.10.1 Pressure–Temperature–time (P–T–t) paths
• 15.10.2 Plate Tectonic Setting of Metamorphic Facies
• Midocean Ridges
• Convergent Plate Boundaries
• Rifting and Delamination of Continental Crust
• Overview of Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Further Reading
• Chapter 16 Some Economic Minerals, Mainly from Veins and Pegmatites
• 16.1 Gold: Au
• 16.2 Silver: Ag
• 16.3 Copper: Cu
• 16.4 Diamond: C
• 16.5 Sulfur: S
• 16.6 Galena: PbS
• 16.7 Sphalerite: ZnS
• 16.8 Bornite: Cu5FeS4
• 16.9 Chalcocite: Cu2S
• 16.10 Marcasite: FeS2
• 16.11 Molybdenite: MoS2
• 16.12 Arsenopyrite: FeAsS
• 16.13 Bauxite: a Mixture of Diaspore, Gibbsite, and Boehmite
• 16.14 Fluorite: CaF2
• 16.15 Barite: BaSO4
• 16.16 Spodumene: LiAlSi2O6
• 16.17 Lepidolite: K(Li,Al)2−3(AlSi3O10)(OH,F)2
• 16.18 Several Gem Minerals
• Ruby and Sapphire (Gem Varieties of Corundum, Al2O3)
• Topaz
• Tourmaline
• Emerald, Heliodor, and Aquamarine (Gem Varieties of Beryl, Be3Al2Si6O18)
• Opal
• Jade
• Turquoise
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Further Reading
• Chapter 17 Some Selected Earth Materials Resources
• 17.1 Construction Materials
• 17.1.1 Building Stones
• 17.1.2 Bricks, Cement, and Concrete
• 17.1.3 Crushed Stone, Sand, and Gravel
• 17.2 Iron Ore
• 17.3 Clay Minerals
• 17.4 Copper Ore
• 17.5 Lithium Ore
• 17.6 Rare Earth Elements (REEs)
• 17.7 Zeolites
• 17.8 Energy Resources
• 17.8.1 Oil, Natural Gas, and Coal Reserves
• 17.8.2 Shale Gas and Hydraulic Fracturing
• 17.8.3 Nuclear Energy
• 17.8.4 Geothermal Energy
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Online Resources
• Further Reading
• Chapter 18 Earth Materials and Human Health
• 18.1 The Human Body’s Need for Earth Materials
• 18.2 Soils and Human Health
• 18.2.1 What Constitutes a Fertile Soil?
• Volcanic Soils
• Soil from Young Tectonic Regions
• Glacial Soil
• Wind-blown Soil (Loess)
• 18.2.2 Increasing Crop Production from Agricultural Land, and Soil Depletion
• 18.2.3 The Need for Fertilizers
• 18.3 Carcinogenic and Chemical Hazards Posed by Earth Materials
• 18.3.1 Erionite
• 18.3.2 Asbestos Minerals
• 18.3.3 Silica Minerals
• 18.3.4 Arsenic, an Example of a Chemically Hazardous Earth Material
• Arsenic in the General Environment
• Arsenic in Groundwater in Southeast Asia
• 18.3.5 Health Hazards Due to Radioactivity
• Radon Gas
• Radioactive Waste Disposal from Nuclear Power Plants
• 18.3.6 Carbon Sequestration to Mitigate Climate Change
• 18.4 Hazards from Volcanic Eruptions
• 18.4.1 Monitoring Active Volcanoes
• 18.4.2 Lahars
• 18.5 Tsunamis
• 18.6 Ejecta from Meteorite Impacts
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Online Resources
• USGS health and environment
• Arsenic
• Acid mine drainage
• Carbon dioxide
• Further Reading
• Glossary
• Minerals and Varieties
• Common Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rocks
• Common Units of Measure
• Other Quantitative Terms
• Index
• Plates