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• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• About the Author
• Acknowledgments
• Preface
• Part I: Framework of Climate Science
• Chapter 1 Overview of Climate Science
• Climate and Climate Change
• 1-1 Geologic Time
• TOOLS OF CLIMATE SCIENCE: Temperature Scales
• 1-2 How This Book Is Organized
• Development of Climate Science
• 1-3 How Scientists Study Climate Change
• Overview of the Climate System
• 1-4 Components of the Climate System
• 1-5 Climate Forcing
• 1-6 Climate Responses
• 1-7 Time Scales of Forcing Versus Response
• 1-8 Differing Response Rates and Climate System Interactions
• 1-9 Feedbacks in the Climate System
• CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Positive and Negative Feedbacks
• Chapter 2 Earth’s Climate System Today
• Heating Earth
• 2-1 Incoming Solar Radiation
• 2-2 Receipt and Storage of Solar Heat
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: The Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
• CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Albedo/Temperature
• CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Water in the Climate System
• 2-3 Heat Transformation
• CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Water Vapor
• Heat Transfer in Earth’s Atmosphere
• 2-4 Overcoming Stable Layering in the Atmosphere
• 2-5 Tropical-Subtropical Atmospheric Circulation
• 2-6 Atmospheric Circulation at Middle and High Latitudes
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: The Coriolis Effect
• Heat Transfer in Earth’s Oceans
• 2-7 The Surface Ocean
• 2-8 Deep-Ocean Circulation
• Ice on Earth
• 2-9 Sea Ice
• 2-10 Glacial Ice
• Earth’s Biosphere
• 2-11 Response of the Biosphere to the Physical Climate System
• 2-12 Effects of the Biosphere on the Climate System
• CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Vegetation-Climate Feedbacks
• Chapter 3 Climate Archives, Data, and Models
• Climate Archives, Dating, and Resolution
• 3-1 Types of Archives
• 3-2 Dating Climate Records
• 3-3 Climatic Resolution
• Climatic Data
• 3-4 Biotic Data
• 3-5 Geological and Geochemical Data
• Climate Models
• 3-6 Physical Climate Models
• 3-7 Geochemical Models
• Part II: Tectonic-Scale Climate Change
• Chapter 4 CO2 and Long-Term Climate
• Greenhouse Worlds
• The Faint Young Sun Paradox
• Carbon Exchanges between Rocks and the Atmosphere
• 4-1 Volcanic Input of Carbon from Rocks to the Atmosphere
• 4-2 Removal of CO2 from the Atmosphere by Chemical Weathering
• Climatic Factors That Control Chemical Weathering
• Is Chemical Weathering Earth’s Thermostat?
• 4-3 Was Methane Part of the Thermostat?
• Is Life the Ultimate Control on Earth’s Thermostat?
• 4-4 The Gaia Hypothesis
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: The Organic Carbon Subcycle
• Was There a Thermostat Malfunction? A Snowball Earth?
• Chapter 5 Plate Tectonics and Long-Term Climate
• Plate Tectonics
• 5-1 Structure and Composition of Tectonic Plates
• 5-2 Evidence of Past Plate Motions
• The Polar Position Hypothesis
• 5-3 Glaciations and Continental Positions since 500 Myr Ago
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Brief Glaciation 445 Myr Ago
• Modeling Climate on the Supercontinent Pangaea
• 5-4 Input to a Model Simulation of the Climate on Pangaea
• 5-5 Output from the Model Simulation of Climate on Pangaea
• Tectonic Control of CO2 Input: The BLAG (Spreading Rate) Hypothesis
• 5-6 Control of CO2 Input by Seafloor Spreading
• 5-7 Initial Evaluation of the BLAG (Spreading Rate) Hypothesis
• Tectonic Control of CO2 Removal: The Uplift Weathering Hypothesis
• 5-8 Rock Exposure and Chemical Weathering
• 5-9 Case Study: The Wind River Basin of Wyoming
• 5-10 Uplift and Chemical Weathering
• 5-11 Case Study: Weathering in the Amazon Basin
• 5-12 Weathering: Both a Climate Forcing and a Feedback?
• Chapter 6 Greenhouse Climate
• What Explains the Warmth 100 Million Years Ago?
• 6-1 Model Simulations of the Cretaceous Greenhouse
• 6-2 What Explains the Data-Model Mismatch?
• 6-3 Relevance of Past Greenhouse Climate to the Future
• Why Were Sea Levels Higher 80 to 100 Million Years Ago?
• 6-4 Changes in the Volume of the Ocean Basins
• 6-5 Climatic Factors
• 6-6 Assessment of Higher Cretaceous Sea Levels
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Calculating Changes in Sea Level
• 6-7 Effect of Changes in Sea Level on Climate
• The Asteroid Impact (65 Million Years Ago)
• Greenhouse Episode 55 Million Years Ago: Another Thermostat Malfunction?
• Chapter 7 From Greenhouse to Icehouse: The Last 50 Million Years
• Global Cooling Since 50 Million Years Ago
• 7-1 Evidence from Ice and Vegetation
• 7-2 Evidence from Oxygen Isotope Measurements
• 7-3 Evidence from Mg/Ca Measurements
• Do Changes in Geography Explain the Cooling?
• 7-4 Evaluation of the Gateway Hypothesis
• Hypotheses That Invoke Changes in CO2
• 7-5 Evaluation of the BLAG (Spreading Rate) Hypothesis
• 7-6 Evaluation of the Uplift Weathering Hypothesis
• CLIMATE DEBATE: The Timing of Uplift in Western North America
• Future Climate Change at Tectonic Time Scales
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Organic Carbon: The Monterey Hypothesis
• Part III: Orbital-Scale Climate Change
• Chapter 8 Astronomical Control of Solar Radiation
• Earth’s Orbit Today
• 8-1 Earth’s Tilted Axis of Rotation and the Seasons
• 8-2 Earth’s Eccentric Orbit: Distance Between Earth and Sun
• Long-Term Changes in Earth’s Orbit
• 8-3 Changes in Earth’s Axial Tilt Through Time
• TOOLS OF CLIMATE SCIENCE: Cycles and Modulation
• 8-4 Changes in Earth’s Eccentric Orbit Through Time
• 8-5 Precession of the Solstices and Equinoxes Around Earth’s Orbit
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Earth’s Precession as a Sine Wave
• Changes in Insolation Received on Earth
• 8-6 Insolation Changes by Month and Season
• 8-7 Insolation Changes by Caloric Seasons
• Searching for Orbital-Scale Changes in Climatic Records
• 8-8 Time Series Analysis
• 8-9 Effects of Undersampling Climate Records
• 8-10 Tectonic-Scale Changes in Earth’s Orbit
• Chapter 9 Insolation Control of Monsoons
• Monsoonal Circulations
• 9-1 Orbital-Scale Control of Summer Monsoons
• Orbital-Scale Changes in North African Summer Monsoons
• 9-2 “Stinky Muds” in the Mediterranean
• 9-3 Freshwater Diatoms in the Tropical Atlantic
• 9-4 Upwelling in the Equatorial Atlantic
• 9-5 The Phasing of Summer Monsoons
• Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis: Regional Assessment
• Monsoon Forcing Earlier in Earth’s History
• 9-6 Monsoons on Pangaea 200 Million Years Ago
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Insolation-Driven Monsoon Responses: A Chronometer for Tuning
• 9-7 Joint Tectonic and Orbital Control of Monsoons
• Chapter 10 Insolation Control of Ice Sheets
• What Controls the Size of Ice Sheets?
• 10-1 Orbital Control of Ice Sheets: The Milankovitch Theory
• Modeling the Behavior of Ice Sheets
• 10-2 Insolation Control of Ice Sheet Size
• 10-3 Ice Sheets Lag Behind Summer Insolation Forcing
• 10-4 Delayed Bedrock Response Beneath Ice Sheets
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Ice Volume Response to Insolation
• 10-5 A Full Cycle of Ice Growth and Decay
• 10-6 Ice Slipping and Calving
• Northern Hemisphere Ice Sheet History
• 10-7 Ice Sheet History: δ18O Evidence
• 10-8 Confirming Ice Volume Changes: Coral Reefs and Sea Level
• Is Milankovitch’s Theory the Full Answer?
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Sea Level on Uplifting Islands
• Chapter 11 Orbital-Scale Changes in Carbon Dioxide and Methane
• Ice Cores
• 11-1 Drilling and Dating Ice Cores
• 11-2 Verifying Ice-Core Measurements of Ancient Air
• 11-3 Orbital-Scale Carbon Transfers: Carbon Isotopes
• Orbital-Scale Changes in CO2
• 11-4 Where Did the Missing Carbon Go?
• 11-5 δ13C Evidence of Carbon Transfer
• How Did the Carbon Get into the Deep Ocean?
• 11-6 Increased CO2 Solubility in Seawater
• 11-7 Biological Transfer from Surface Waters
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Using δ13C to Measure Carbon Pumping
• 11-8 Changes in Deep-Water Circulation
• Orbital-Scale Changes in CH4
• Orbital-Scale Climatic Roles: Forcing or Feedback?
• Chapter 12 Orbital-Scale Interactions, Feedbacks, and Unsolved Mysteries
• Orbital-Scale Climatic Interactions
• 12-1 Climatic Responses Driven by the Ice Sheets
• The Mystery of the 41,000-Year Glacial World
• 12-2 Explanation 1: Insolation Varied Mainly at 41,000 Years
• 12-3 Explanation 2: Antarctic Ice Changes at 23,000 Years Cancel Northern Ones
• 12-4 Explanation 3: Positive CO2 Feedback at 1,000 Years
• The Mystery of the ~100,000-Year Glacial World
• 12-5 How Is the Northern Ice Signal Transferred South?
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: The Link Between Forcing and the Time Constants of Ice Response
• Proposed Mechanisms for ~100,000-Year Ice Buildup
• 12-6 Ice Sheets Interaction with Bedrock
• 12-7 Long-Term Cooling and CO2/Ice-Albedo Feedback
• Proposed Mechanisms for ~100,000-Year Ice Melting
• 12-8 Timing of Deglacial Terminations
• 12-9 Proposed Local Causes of Abrupt Deglacial Terminations
• 12-10 CO2 and Ice Sheet Albedo Feedback During Terminations
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: An Antarctic Role in Long-Term CO2 and δ18O Trends?
• Part IV: Glacial/Deglacial Climate Change
• Chapter 13 The Last Glacial Maximum
• Glacial World: More Ice, Less Gas
• 13-1 Project CLIMAP: Reconstructing the Last Glacial Maximum
• 13-2 How Large Were the Ice Sheets?
• 13-3 Glacial Dirt and Winds
• 13-4 Project COHMAP: Data-Model Comparisons
• 13-5 Pollen: An Indicator of Climate on the Continents
• 13-6 Using Pollen for Data-Model Comparisons
• Data-Model Comparisons of Glacial Maximum Climates
• 13-7 Model Simulations of Glacial Maximum Climates
• 13-8 Climate Changes Near the Northern Ice Sheets
• 13-9 Climate Changes Far from the Northern Ice Sheets
• How Cold Were the Glacial Tropics?
• 13-10 Evidence for a Small Tropical Cooling
• 13-11 Evidence for a Large Tropical Cooling
• 13-12 The Actual Cooling Was Medium-Small
• Chapter 14 Climate During and Since the Last Deglaciation
• Fire and Ice: A Shift in the Balance of Power
• 14-1 When Did the Ice Sheets Melt?
• 14-2 Coral Reefs and Rising Sea Level
• 14-3 Rapid Early Deglaciation
• TOOLS OF CLIMATE SCIENCE: Deglacial 14C Dates Are Too Young
• 14-4 Mid-Deglacial Cooling: The Younger Dryas
• 14-5 Positive Feedbacks to Deglacial Melting
• 14-6 Deglacial Lakes, Floods, and Sea Level Rise
• Other Climate Changes During and After Deglaciation
• 14-7 Stronger, Then Weaker Monsoons
• CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Giant Deglacial Floods
• 14-8 Warmer, Then Cooler North Polar Summers
• Current and Future Orbital-Scale Climatic Change
• Chapter 15 Millennial Oscillations of Climate
• Millennial Oscillations During Glaciations
• 15-1 Oscillations Recorded in Greenland Ice Cores
• 15-2 Oscillations Recorded in North Atlantic Sediments
• 15-3 Detecting and Dating Other Millennial Oscillations
• 15-4 Oscillations Elsewhere in the Northern Hemisphere
• 15-5 Oscillations in Antarctica
• Millennial Oscillations During the Present Interglaciation
• Causes of Millennial Oscillations
• 15-6 Are the Oscillations Periodic?
• 15-7 Are the Oscillations Forced by the Sun?
• 15-8 Are the Oscillations Caused by Natural Ice Sheet Instabilities?
• 15-9 Are the Oscillations Caused by Interhemispheric Climate Instabilities?
• 15-10 What Role Did the Greenhouse Gases Play?
• 15-11 Implications for Future Climate
• Part V: Historical and Future Climate Change
• Chapter 16 Humans and Preindustrial Climate
• Climate and Human Evolution
• 16-1 Evidence of Human Evolution
• 16-2 Did Climate Change Drive Human Evolution?
• 16-3 Testing Climatic Hypotheses with Fragmentary Records
• The Impact of Climate on Early Farming
• 16-4 Did Deglacial Warming Lead to Early Agriculture?
• 16-5 Impacts of Climate on Early Civilizations
• LOOKING DEEPER INTO CLIMATE SCIENCE: Sea Level Rise and Flood Legends
• Early Impacts of Humans on Climate
• 16-6 Did Humans Cause Megafaunal Extinctions?
• 16-7 Did Early Farmers Alter Climate?
• Chapter 17 Climate Changes During the Last 1,000 Years
• The Little Ice Age
• Proxy Records of Historical Climate
• 17-1 Ice Cores from Mountain Glaciers
• 17-2 Tree Rings
• TOOLS OF CLIMATE SCIENCE: Analyzing Tree Rings
• 17-3 Corals and Tropical Ocean Temperatures
• 17-4 Other Historical Observations
• CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: El Niño and ENSO
• Reconstructing Hemispheric Temperature Trends
• Proposed Causes of Climate Change from 1000 to 1850
• 17-5 Orbital Forcing
• 17-6 The Millennial Bipolar Seesaw
• 17-7 Solar Variability
• 17-8 Volcanic Explosions
• 17-9 Greenhouse-Gas Effects on Climate
• Chapter 18 Climatic Changes Since 1850
• Reconstructing Changes in Sea Level
• 18-1 Fading Memories of Melted Ice Sheets
• Other Instrumental Records
• 18-2 Thermometers: Surface Temperatures
• 18-3 Subsurface Ocean Temperatures
• 18-4 Mountain Glaciers
• 18-5 Ground Temperature
• Satellite Observations
• 18-6 Disagreement Between Satellite and Ground Stations Resolved
• 18-7 Circumarctic Warming
• 18-8 Ice Sheets
• Sources of the Recent Rise in Sea Level
• Internal Oscillations
• Chapter 19 Causes of Warming over the Last 125 Years
• Natural Causes of Recent Warming
• 19-1 Tectonic, Orbital, and Millennial Factors
• 19-2 Century- and Decadal-Scale Factors: Solar Forcing
• 19-3 Annual-Scale Forcing: El Niños and Volcanic Eruptions
• Anthropogenic Causes of the Recent Warming
• 19-4 Carbon Dioxide CO2
• 19-5 Methane CH4
• 19-6 Increases in Chlorofluorocarbons
• 19-7 Sulfate Aerosols
• 19-8 Brown Clouds, Black Carbon, and Global Dimming/Brightening
• 19-9 Land Clearance
• Earth’s Sensitivity to Greenhouse Gases
• 19-10 Sensitivity in Climate Models
• CLIMATE INTERACTIONS AND FEEDBACKS: Radiative Forcing of Recent Warming
• 19-11 Sensitivity to Greenhouse Gases: Earth’s Climate History
• Why Has the Warming Since 1850 Been So Small?
• 19-12 Delayed Warming: Ocean Thermal Inertia
• 19-13 Cooling from Anthropogenic Aerosols
• Global Warming: Summary
• Chapter 20 Future Climatic Change
• Future Human Impacts on Greenhouse Gases
• 20-1 Factors Affecting Future Carbon Emissions
• 20-2 Projected Carbon Emissions and CO2 Concentrations
• Effects of Future CO2 Increases on Climate and the Environment
• 20-3 A World in Climatic Disequilibrium
• 20-4 Fast Climatic Responses in a 3 X CO2 World
• 20-5 Slow Climatic Responses in a 3 X CO2 World
• 20-6 How Will the Greenhouse World Change Human Life?
• Greenhouse Surprises?
• 20-7 Methane Clathrate Releases?
• 20-8 Chilling of the North Atlantic and Europe?
• 20-9 A Different Kind of Anthropogenic Climate Surprise: Nuclear Cooling?
• Climate Modification?
• 20-10 Reducing Greenhouse-Gas Emissions to the Atmosphere
• 20-11 Reducing the Effects of the Sun’s Heating
• Epilogue
• Appendix 1 Isotopes of Oxygen
• Appendix 2 Isotopes of Carbon
• Glossary
• A
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• C
• D
• E
• F
• G
• H
• I
• J
• K
• L
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• V
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• Y
• Index
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