Efnisyfirlit

• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Preface
• Table of Contents
• Chapter 1: The “natures” of ecology
• 1.1 The birth certificate
• 1.2 Is ecology a science?
• 1.3 Ecosystem ecology and/or population ecology?
• 1.4 Ecosystem ecology: holism or reductionism?
• 1.5 Scientific ecology, political ecology and environmental sciences
• 1.6 Ecology and the media
• Part I: Elaboration of the Scientific Approach in Ecosystem Ecology
• Chapter 2: Origin and evolution of the ecosystem concept
• 2.1. The original main streams in ecology
• 2.1.1. Humboldt’s plant geography
• 2.1.2. Towards phytosociology
• 2.1.3. Towards synecology
• 2.1.4. The American school: succession and climax
• 2.1.5. Elton’s pyramids
• 2.2. The precursors of the ecosystem concept
• 2.2.1. Forbes and the microcosm
• 2.2.2. Thieneman and the Lebenseinheiten
• 2.2.3. Karl Friederichs and the holocoen
• 2.2.4. Sukachev and the biogeocoenosis
• 2.3. Tansley and the roots of the ecosystem concept
• 2.4. Implementation of the ecosystem concept: the tropho-dynamics approach
• 2.4.1. Matter and energy cycles
• 2.4.2. Biological production
• 2.4.3. The International Biological Programme
• 2.5. The ecosystem as an object of research
• 2.6. Is the ecosystem concept a product of western science?
• Chapter 3: Approaches and paradigms of ecosystem ecology
• 3.1. Science and non-science: where is the dividing line?
• 3.2. A goal: the search for order
• 3.2.1. Understanding the natural world
• 3.2.2. Concepts, hypotheses and theories
• 3.2.3. Paradigms
• 3.2.4. Are there laws in ecology?
• 3.3. Metaphors and analogies
• 3.4. Ecosystem ecology: between reductionism and holism
• 3.4.1. The reductionist temptation: building cathedrals
• 3.4.2. The holistic mirage
• 3.4.3. The current practice of ecology
• 3.5. Inductive reasoning and the hypothetical-deductive method
• 3.5.1. The burden of proof
• 3.5.2. Inductive reasoning
• 3.5.3. The hypothetical-deductive method
• 3.5.4. Should inductive reasoning be kept out of ecosystem ecology?
• 3.5.5. From theory to practice in ecology
• 3.5.6. Ecological theories and difficulties encountered in their validation
• 3.6. Deterministic or stochastic approach?
• Chapter 4: Methods of studying ecosystems
• 4.1. A science of observation
• 4.1.1. Sampling
• 4.1.2. New technologies
• 4.2. The comparative approach
• 4.3. The experimental approach
• 4.3.1. In situ experiments
• 4.3.2. Controlled experimental systems
• 4.4. Models and simulation
• 4.4.1. The origin of systemic models
• 4.4.2. The use of models
• Part II: Structure and Organization of Ecosystems
• Chapter 5: The system concept and attempts to apply physical principles to ecosystem ecology
• 5.1. A fundamental notion: the system approach
• 5.1.1. The macroscope
• 5.1.2. Structured and organized systems
• 5.2. Complexity
• 5.3. Information theory and cybernetics
• 5.3.1. Feedback
• 5.3.2. Information networks in ecosystems
• 5.3.3. Communication networks in ecosystems
• 5.3.4. Cybernetic cohesion of ecosystems
• 5.4. The inputs of thermodynamics
• 5.4.1. Basic principles of thermodynamics
• 5.4.2. Thermodynamics of dissipative systems
• 5.4.3. A fourth law of thermodynamics?
• Chapter 6: Abiotic factors and structure of ecosystems
• 6.1. Abiotic factors: a network of constraints
• 6.2. Geological processes
• 6.2.1. Geomorphology
• 6.2.2. The cycle of erosion, transportation and sedimentation
• 6.2.3. Soils
• 6.3. The macroclimate
• 6.3.1. Sunlight
• 6.3.2. Temperature
• 6.3.3. Rainfall and humidity
• 6.3.4. Climate and world structure: the biomes
• 6.4. Wind
• 6.4.1. Exceptional events: tornadoes and hurricanes
• 6.4.2. Wind as an agent of erosion and transport
• 6.4.3. Wind and the structure of aquatic systems
• 6.4.4. Winds, upwellings and coastal fisheries
• 6.5. Fire
• 6.6. Water
• 6.6.1. Water and terrestrial ecosystems
• 6.6.2. Fluvial systems
• 6.7. Abiotic factors structure ecosystems
• 6.7.1. Lakes
• 6.7.2. Watersheds
• Chapter 7: Hierarchies, levels of organization and typology of ecological systems
• 7.1. The search for order in ecosystem structure
• 7.1.1. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts
• 7.1.2. Hierarchies
• 7.2. Organization levels of biological systems
• 7.2.1. Taxonomic hierarchy: the search for order in species diversity
• 7.2.2. Biotic assemblages: from individual to biocoenosis
• 7.2.3. Trophic hierarchy
• 7.3. Examples of hierarchical structures in the functioning of ecosystems
• 7.3.1. The rule of stream order
• 7.3.2. Hierarchy of physicochemical-variables controlling the metabolism of inland water systems
• 7.3.3. Hierarchy of spatial and temporal scales and species composition of freshwater fish communiti
• 7.4. Typology and ecological classification
• Chapter 8: Spatial and temporal scales and their consequences
• 8.1. Time
• 8.1.1. Time scales
• 8.1.2. Interactions between time scales
• 8.1.3. Long-term ecological research
• 8.2. Spatial ecological units: a question of scales
• 8.2.1. Ecosystems
• 8.2.2. Macro-ecosystems: landscapes, geosystems, ecocomplexes, biomes
• 8.2.3. The biosphere
• 8.3. Integration of spatial and temporal scales
• 8.3.1. The erosion-transport-sedimentation cycle
• 8.3.2. Fish habitat
• 8.3.3. Spatial and temporal dynamics of river systems
• 8.3.4. The ergoclines theory
• 8.3.5. The refuge zones theory
• 8.4. Scales of observation
• 8.4.1. Macroecology
• 8.4.2. The biosphere’s primary production
• 8.4.3. Spatial scales and soil functioning
• 8.5. The dynamics of spatial structures: fractals
• Chapter 9: Spatial heterogeneity and temporal variability
• 9.1. From the paradigm of homogeneous systems to the recognition of heterogeneity
• 9.2. The discovery of frontiers: ecotones
• 9.3. Gradients
• 9.4. Temporal variability: a fundamental characteristic of ecosystems
• 9.4.1. Diurnal cycles
• 9.4.2. Annual variability
• 9.4.3. Inter-annual variability
• 9.5. Landscape ecology: how to integrate spatial and temporal heterogeneity
• 9.5.1. Principles of landscape ecology
• 9.5.2. Landscape structure and functioning
• 9.5.3. The hydrosystem: a heterogeneous landscape
• 9.5.4. Lakes as part of a landscape: regional ecology
• 9.6. Fragmented communities
• 9.6.1. Metapopulation concept
• 9.6.2. Patch dynamics
• Part III: Functioning of Ecosystems
• Chapter 10: Dynamics of communities and ecosystems: from the balance of nature to self-regulated sys
• 10.1. Brief history of the idea of equilibrium
• 10.1.1. The dogma of equilibrium
• 10.1.2. Controversy: the paradigm of non-equilibrium
• 10.1.3. The mutation is not complete
• 10.2. The balance of nature
• 10.2.1. The economy of nature according to Linnaeus
• 10.2.2. Towards a more dynamic conception of nature: time as a dimension
• 10.3. Equilibrium theories based on intra-and interspecific relationships
• 10.3.1. The logistic equation and density-dependent regulation
• 10.3.2. Equilibrium theories in relation to interspecific competition
• 10.3.3. The role of predation
• 10.3.4. The MacArthur and Wilson model and the theory of dynamic equilibrium
• 10.3.5. Cooperation between species: the Japanese view
• 10.3.6. Ecological saturation and biotic interactions
• 10.4. Succession theories
• 10.4.1. Successions
• 10.4.2. The concept of climax
• 10.4.3. Holling’s model
• 10.5. Ecosystem stability and resilience
• 10.5.1. Ambiguous terms
• 10.5.2. Complexity and stability
• 10.6. The dynamic equilibrium of ecosystems and disturbances
• 10.6.1. What is a disturbance?
• 10.6.2. Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
• 10.6.3. Non-equilibrium dynamics
• 10.6.4. Buffering and recovery capacities of ecosystems
• 10.7. Non-linear system dynamics
• 10.7.1. Bifurcations and attractors
• 10.7.2. Chaos theory
• 10.8. Are ecosystems self-organized systems?
• 10.8.1. Homeostasis of ecological systems
• 10.8.2. Adaptive systems theory
• 10.8.3. Self-organized criticality
• 10.9. Conclusion
• Chapter 11: Matter and energy flows in ecosystems
• 11.1. Matter and energy flows in ecosystems
• 11.1.1. Matter cycles and energy flow
• 11.1.2. How matter and energy flows structure ecosystems
• 11.2. Ecosystem production and productivity
• 11.3. Primary production
• 11.3.1. Mechanisms of accumulation of biochemical energy
• 11.3.2. Estimation of primary production
• 11.3.3. Control factors of primary production
• 11.4. Secondary production
• 11.4.1. Turnover rates of biomass
• 11.4.2. Energy budgets
• 11.4.3. Ecological pyramids
• 11.5. Food web organization
• 11.5.1. Trophic levels
• 11.5.2. Food chains and food webs
• 11.5.3. Trophic guilds
• 11.5.4. Autotrophic and detritic food chains
• 11.5.5. Some generalizations about food webs
• 11.5.6. Spatial and temporal dynamics of food webs
• 11.5.7. The role of microorganisms in pelagic systems
• 11.6. Theories about the control of ecosystem functioning through food webs
• 11.6.1. The top down and bottom up theories
• 11.6.2. Theory of trophic cascades
• 11.6.3. Energy flow through size class in a community
• Chapter 12: Biological diversity and ecosystem functioning
• 12.1. What is biological diversity?
• 12.2. Genetic diversity and adaptation of biological systems to environmental changes
• 12.2.1. Natural selection: chance or necessity?
• 12.2.2. Adaptation and phenotypic plasticity
• 12.2.3. Genetic diversity and functioning of biological communities
• 12.3. The role of species in ecosystems
• 12.3.1. Key species
• 12.3.2. Rare species
• 12.3.3. Guilds and functional groups: complementary and compensatory effect
• 12.3.4. Mutualism, symbiosis, parasitism
• 12.4. Hypothesis on the role of biological diversity in ecosystem functioning
• 12.5. The role of biological diversity in nutrient cycles
• 12.5.1. Microorganisms and functioning of aquatic systems
• 12.5.2. Plant species and transport of nutrients by animals
• 12.5.3. Nutrient cycling and transport by consumers
• 12.6. Species diversity and biological production
• 12.6.1. Experimental approach to relationships between diversity of autotrophs and biological produc
• 12.6.2. Relationships between heterotroph species richness and biological production
• 12.6.3. Relationships between primary production and biological diversity of heterotrophs: degrees o
• 12.7. Role of biological communities in ecosystem functioning
• 12.7.1. Role of gallery forests in the functioning of river systems
• 12.7.2. Role of benthic communities in the functioning of marine ecosystems
• 12.7.3. Importance of viruses in the structure and the functioning of aquatic food webs
• 12.8. Change in community structure and consequences for ecosystem functioning
• 12.8.1. Consequences of species introductions
• 12.8.2. Consequences of species removal
• Chapter 13: The biogeochemical cycles
• 13.1. The carbon cycle
• 13.1.1. Carbon and oxygen cycles: two strongly linked cycles
• 13.1.2. Carbon reservoirs
• 13.1.3. Atmosphere-biosphere exchanges
• 13.1.4. Oceans and the carbon biological pump
• 13.1.5. Carbon in the lithosphere: a long-term store of biological origin
• 13.1.6. The missing carbon
• 13.2. The nitrogen cycle
• 13.2.1. Stages of the nitrogen cycle
• 13.2.2. Atmospheric phase of the nitrogen cycle
• 13.3. Phosphorus
• 13.3.1. The phosphorus cycle
• 13.3.2. The phosphorus cycle in freshwater ecosystems
• 13.4. Sulphur
• 13.4.1. The terrestrial sulphur cycle
• 13.4.2. Atmospheric phase of the sulphur cycle
• 13.5. Other elements
• 13.5.1. Calcium and buffering capacity
• 13.5.2. Silica
• 13.6. Interactions between biogeochemical cycles
• 13.6.1. Biogeochemical cycles, the water cycle and the oxygen cycle
• 13.6.2. Threshold effects: limitation of the carbon cycle by nitrogen and phosphorus availability
• 13.6.3. Importance of micronutrients: iron in the carbon cycle in the marine environment
• Part IV: Global Ecology
• Chapter 14: Global ecology: dynamics of the biosphere
• 14.1. The origins of the biosphere concept
• 14.2. The earth system and global ecology
• 14.3. The Gaia hypothesis and geophysiology
• 14.4. Global changes
• 14.4.1. Changes in land cover and use and the use of water
• 14.4.2. Changes in the composition of the atmosphere
• 14.2.3. Climatic changes
• 14.4.4. Changes in biological diversity
• 14.5. The biosphere as an object of study
• Chapter 15: The climatic system and its variability
• 15.1. The earth’s energy balance and the greenhouse effect
• 15.1.1. Radiation and the energy balance
• 15.1.2. The greenhouse effect
• 15.2. The thermal machinery
• 15.2.1. Atmospheric circulation
• 15.2.2. The ocean as regulator of climate
• 15.2.3. The role of vegetation in the water cycle and climate equilibrium
• 15.3. Spatial and temporal variability of climate
• 15.3.1. Rising temperature
• 15.3.2. The Sahelian drought
• 15.3.3. El Nino
• 15.3.4. The astronomic theory of climates
• 15.4. Climatic system modelling
• 15.5. The climate to come
• Chapter 16: Biosphere-atmosphere interactions and their consequences for global equilibrium
• 16.1. Structure and composition of the atmosphere
• 16.2. Origin and evolution of the atmosphere
• 16.2.1. Influence of the biosphere on atmospheric composition
• 16.2.2. Stratospheric ozone and protection against ultraviolet radiation
• 16.3. Biogenic and anthropogenic trace elements
• 16.3.1. Methane and other hydrocarbons
• 16.3.2. The nitrogen components
• 16.3.3. Chlorofluorocarbons, organic halogen compounds and the hole in the ozone layer
• 16.3.4. Carbon dioxide and additional greenhouse effect
• 16.3.5. Acid rain
• 16.4. Aerosols and the albedo effect
• 16.5. Water cycle and energy exchanges between the earth’s surface and the atmosphere
• 16.5.1. Water cycle
• 16.5.2. Evaporation
• 16.5.3. Control of evapotranspiration: the soil-vegetation-atmosphere system
• Chapter 17: Responses of ecosystems to climatic changes: knowing the past to understand the future
• 17.1. What we can learn from the past: palaeoclimatology, palaeoecology and palaeoenvironments
• 17.1.1. Paleoclimatology
• 17.1.2. Palaeontology
• 17.1.3. Palaeoecology and palaeoenvironments
• 17.2. Ancient palaeoenvironments
• 17.3. Ecosystem changes during the last glacial cycles
• 17.3.1. Temperate ecosystems
• 17.3.2. Mediterranean ecosystems
• 17.3.3. Tropical rainforests
• 17.3.4. Freshwater ecosystems
• 17.4. Ecological impact of present global warming
• 17.4.1. The general context
• 17.4.2. Impact of C02 increase on species physiology and structure of ecosystems
• 17.4.3. Impact on the water cycle and aquatic ecosystems
• 17.4.4. Impact on terrestrial ecosystems
• 17.4.5. Rise in sea level
• 17.4.6. Climate changes and sub-Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems
• 17.4.7. Effects on health
• 17.5. The likely effects of climate change in Europe
• Selected Bibliography
• Index