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• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• About the Author
• Preface
• Brief Contents
• Contents
• Special Features
• CHAPTER 1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology
• Teachers’ Casebook: Leaving No Student Behind: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• Learning and Teaching Today
• Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology
• Confidence in Every Context
• High Expectations for Teachers and Students
• Do Teachers Make a Difference?
• Teacher–Student Relationships
• The Cost of Poor Teaching
• What is Good Teaching?
• Inside Three Classrooms
• A Bilingual First Grade
• A Suburban Fifth Grade
• An Inclusive Class
• So What is Good Teaching?
• Models of Good Teaching: Teacher Observation and Evaluation
• Beginning Teachers
• The Role of Educational Psychology
• In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology and Teaching
• Educational Psychology Today
• Is It Just Common Sense?
• Helping Students
• Answer Based on Research
• Skipping Grades
• Answer Based on Research
• Students in Control
• Answer Based on Research
• Obvious Answers?
• Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning
• Correlation Studies
• Experimental Studies
• ABAB Experimental Designs
• Clinical Interviews and Case Studies
• Ethnography
• The Role of Time in Research
• What’s The Evidence? Quantitative versus Qualitative Research
• Mixed Methods Research
• Scientifically Based Research and Evidence-Based Practices
• Teachers as Researchers
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research Should Guide Education?
• Theories for Teaching
• Supporting Student Learning
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Leaving No Student Behind: What Would They Do?
• PART I STUDENTS
• CHAPTER 2 Cognitive Development
• Teachers’ Casebook: Symbols and Cymbals: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• A Definition of Development
• Three Questions Across the Theories
• What Is the Source of Development? Nature versus Nurture
• What Is the Shape of Development? Continuity versus Discontinuity
• Timing: Is It Too Late? Critical versus Sensitive Periods
• Beware of Either/Or
• General Principles of Development
• The Brain and Cognitive Development
• The Developing Brain: Neurons
• The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex
• Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence
• Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works
• Culture and Brain Plasticity
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education
• Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching
• Does Instruction Affect Brain Development?
• The Brain and Learning to Read
• Emotions, Learning, and the Brain
• Lessons for Teachers: General Principles
• Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
• Influences on Development
• Basic Tendencies in Thinking
• Organization
• Adaptation
• Equilibration
• Four Stages of Cognitive Development
• Infancy: the Sensorimotor Stage
• Early Childhood to the Early Elementary Years: The Preoperational Stage
• FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children
• Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: The Concrete-Operational Stage
• GUIDELINES: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child
• High School and College: Formal Operations
• Do We All Reach the Fourth Stage?
• Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory
• The Trouble with Stages
• GUIDELINES: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations
• Underestimating Children’s Abilities
• Cognitive Development and Culture
• Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development
• Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective
• The Social Sources of Individual Thinking
• Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development
• Technical Tools in a Digital Age
• Psychological Tools
• The Role of Language and Private Speech
• Private Speech: Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared
• The Zone of Proximal Development
• Private Speech and the Zone
• The Role of Learning and Development
• Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory
• Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers
• Piaget: What Can We Learn?
• Understanding and Building on Students’ Thinking
• Activity and Constructing Knowledge
• Vygotsky: What Can We Learn?
• The Role of Adults and Peers
• Assisted Learning
• An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind
• Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle”
• Cognitive Development: Lessons forTeachers
• GUIDELINES: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Symbols and Cymbals: What Would They Do?
• CHAPTER 3 The Self, Social, and Moral Development
• Teachers’ Casebook: Mean Girls: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• Physical Development
• Physical and Motor Development
• Young Children
• Elementary School Years
• The Adolescent Years
• Early and Later Maturing
• GUIDELINES: Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom
• Play, Recess, and Physical Activity
• Cultural Differences in Play
• Exercise and Recess
• Reaching Every Student: Inclusive Athletics
• Challenges in Physical Development
• Obesity
• Eating Disorders
• GUIDELINES: Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents
• Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development
• The Importance of Context and the Bioecological Model
• Families
• Family Structure
• Parenting Styles
• Culture and Parenting
• FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Connecting with Families
• Attachment
• Divorce
• GUIDELINES: Helping Children of Divorce
• Peers
• Cliques
• Crowds
• Peer Cultures
• Friendships
• Popularity
• Causes and Consequences of Rejection
• Aggression
• Relational Aggression
• Media, Modeling, and Aggression
• GUIDELINES: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation
• Video Games and Aggressive Behavior
• Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support
• Academic and Personal Caring
• Teachers and Child Abuse
• Society and Media
• Identity and Self-Concept
• Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development
• The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative
• The Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus Inferiority
• GUIDELINES: Encouraging Initiative and Industry
• Adolescence: The Search for Identity
• Identity and Technology
• Beyond the School Years
• Racial and Ethnic Identity
• GUIDELINES: Supporting Identity Formation
• Multidimensional and Flexible Ethnic Identities
• Black Racial Identity: Outcome and Process
• Racial and Ethnic Pride
• Self-Concept
• The Structure of Self-Concept
• How Self-Concept Develops
• Self-Concept and Achievement
• Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic Competence
• Self-Esteem
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem?
• Understanding Others and Moral Development
• Theory of Mind and Intention
• Moral Development
• Kohlberg’s Theories of Moral Development
• Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
• Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal Choices
• Moral versus Conventional Domains
• Implications for Teachers
• Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology
• Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating
• Who Cheats?
• Dealing with Cheating
• Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Mean Girls: What Would They Do?
• CHAPTER 4 Learner Differences and Learning Needs
• Teachers’ Casebook: Including Every student: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• Intelligence
• Language and Labels
• Disabilities and Handicaps
• Person-First Language
• Possible Biases in the Application of Labels
• What Does Intelligence Mean?
• Intelligence: One Ability or Many?
• Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
• What Are These Intelligences?
• Critics of Multiple Intelligences Theory
• Gardner Responds
• Multiple Intelligences Go to School
• Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers
• Another View: Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence
• Neuroscience and Intelligence
• Measuring Intelligence
• Binet’s Dilemma
• What Does an IQ Score Mean?
• Group versus Individual IQ Tests
• The Flynn Effect: Are We Getting Smarter?
• GUIDELINES: Interpreting IQ Scores
• Intelligence and Achievement
• Gender Differences in Intelligence and Achievement
• Heredity or Environment?
• Learning to Be Intelligent: Being Smart About IQ
• Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters
• Assessing Creativity
• OK, But So What: Why Does Creativity Matter?
• What Are the Sources of Creativity?
• Creativity and Cognition
• Creativity and Diversity
• Creativity in the Classroom
• Brainstorming
• Creative Schools
• GUIDELINES: Applying and Encouraging Creativity
• Learning Styles
• Learning Styles/Preferences
• Cautions About Learning Styles
• The Value of Considering Learning Styles
• Beyond Either/Or
• Individual Differences and the Law
• IDEA
• Least Restrictive Environment
• Individualized Education Program
• The Rights of Students and Families
• Section 504 Protections
• FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Productive Conferences
• Students with Learning Challenges
• Neuroscience and Learning Challenges
• Students with Learning Disabilities
• Student Characteristics
• Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities
• Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders
• Definitions
• Treating ADHD with Drugs
• Alternatives/Additions to Drug Treatments
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD?
• Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities and ADHD
• Students with Communication Disorders
• Speech Disorders
• Language Disorders
• Students with Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties
• Suicide
• GUIDELINES: Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems
• Drug Abuse
• Prevention
• Students with Intellectual Disabilities
• GUIDELINES: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities
• Students with Health and Sensory Impairments
• Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Disabilities
• Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy)
• Other Serious Health Concerns: Asthma, Sickle Cell Disease, and Diabetes
• Students with Vision Impairments
• Students Who Are Deaf
• Autism Spectrum Disorders and Asperger Syndrome
• Interventions
• Response to Intervention
• Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
• Who Are These Students?
• What Is the Origin of These Gifts?
• What Problems Do Students Who Are Gifted Face?
• Identifying Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
• Recognizing Gifts and Talents
• Teaching Students with Gifts and Talents
• Acceleration
• Methods and Strategies
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Including Every Student: What Would They Do?
• CHAPTER 5 Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education
• Teachers’ Casebook: Cultures Clash in the Classroom: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• The Development of Language
• What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences
• The Puzzle of Language
• Beware of Either/Or Choices
• When and How Does Language Develop?
• Sounds and Pronunciation
• Vocabulary and Meaning
• Grammar and Syntax
• Pragmatics: Using Language in Social Situations
• Metalinguistic Awareness
• Emergent Literacy
• Inside-Out and Outside-In Skills
• Building a Foundation
• When There Are Persistent Problems
• Emergent Literacy and Language Diversity
• Languages and Emergent Literacy
• Bilingual Emergent Literacy
• GUIDELINES: Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy
• Diversity in Language Development
• Dual-Language Development
• Second-Language Learning
• Benefits of Bilingualism
• Language Loss
• Signed Languages
• What Is Involved in Being Bilingual?
• Contextualized and Academic Language
• GUIDELINES: Promoting Language Learning
• Dialect Differences in the Classroom
• Dialects
• Dialects and Pronunciation
• Dialects and Teaching
• Genderlects
• Teaching Immigrant Students
• Immigrants and Refugees
• Classrooms Today
• Four Student Profiles
• Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds
• Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations
• Working with Families: Using the Tools of the Culture
• GUIDELINES: Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for Students Who Are ELLs
• Funds of Knowledge and Welcome Centers
• Student-Led Conferences
• FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Welcoming All Families
• Teaching Immigrant Students Who Are English Language Learners
• Two Approaches to English Language Learning
• Research on Bilingual Education
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Teach Students Who Are ELLs?
• Visual Strategies
• Literature Response Groups
• Bilingualism for All: Two-Way Immersion
• Sheltered Instruction
• Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Language Learners with Disabilities and Special Gifts
• Students Who Are English Language Learners with Disabilities
• Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual Students
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Cultures Clash in the Classroom: What Would They Do?
• CHAPTER 6 Culture and Diversity
• Revised by Ellen L. Usher
• Teachers’ Casebook: White Girls Club: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• Today’s Diverse Classrooms
• American Cultural Diversity
• Meet Two More Students
• Cautions: Interpreting Cultural Differences
• Cultural Conflicts and Compatibilities
• Dangers in Stereotyping
• Economic and Social Class Differences
• Social Class and Socioeconomic Status
• Extreme Poverty: Homeless and Highly Mobile Students
• Poverty and School Achievement
• Health, Environment, and Stress
• Low Expectations—Low Academic Self-Concept
• Peer Influences and Resistance Cultures
• Home Environment and Resources
• Summer Setbacks
• GUIDELINES: Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty
• Tracking: Poor Teaching
• Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning
• Terms: Ethnicity and Race
• Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement
• The Legacy of Inequality
• What Is Prejudice?
• The Development of Prejudice
• From Prejudice to Discrimination
• Stereotype Threat
• Who Is Affected by Stereotype Threat?
• Short-Term Effects: Test Performance
• Long-Term Effects: Disidentification
• Combating Stereotype Threat and Discrimination
• Gender in Teaching and Learning
• Sex and Gender
• Gender Identity
• Gender Roles
• Gender Bias in Curriculum Materials and Media
• Gender Bias in Teaching
• Sexual Orientation
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Girls and Boys Be Taught Differently?
• Discrimination Based on Gender Expression and Sexual Orientation
• GUIDELINES: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching
• Creating Culturally Compatible Classrooms
• Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
• Self-Agency Strand
• Relationship Strand
• Diversity in Learning
• Social Organization
• Cultural Values and Learning Preferences
• Cautions (Again) About Learning Styles/Preferences Research
• Sociolinguistics
• Cultural Discontinuity
• Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student
• Know Yourself
• Know Your Students
• Respect Your Students
• Teach Your Students
• GUIDELINES: Culturally Relevant Teaching
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: White Girls Club: What Would They Do?
• PART II LEARNING AND MOTIVATION
• CHAPTER 7 Behavioral Views of Learning
• Teachers’ Casebook: Sick of Class: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• Understanding Learning
• Ethical Issues
• Goals
• Strategies
• Learning Is Not Always What It Seems
• Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning
• GUIDELINES: Applying Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses
• Types of Consequences
• Reinforcement
• Punishment
• Neuroscience of Reinforcement and Punishment
• Reinforcement Schedules
• Extinction
• Antecedents and Behavior Change
• Effective Instruction Delivery
• Cueing
• Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis
• Methods for Encouraging Behaviors
• Reinforcing with Teacher Attention
• Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle
• GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately
• Shaping
• Positive Practice
• GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging Positive Behaviors
• Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences
• Contingency Contracts
• Token Reinforcement Systems
• Group Consequences
• Handling Undesirable Behavior
• Negative Reinforcement
• Reprimands
• Response Cost
• Social Isolation
• Some Cautions About Punishment
• GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment
• Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems
• Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and Self-Managem
• Discovering the “Why”: Functional Behavioral Assessments
• Positive Behavior Supports
• Self-Management
• Goal Setting
• Monitoring and Evaluating Progress
• FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Applying Operant Conditioning: Student Self-Management
• Self-Reinforcement
• Challenges and Criticisms
• Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational Learning
• Enactive and Observational Learning
• Learning and Performance
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning?
• Criticisms of Behavioral Methods
• Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Sick of Class: What Would They Do?
• CHAPTER 8 Cognitive Views of Learning
• Teachers’ Casebook: Remembering the Basics: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• Elements of the Cognitive Perspective
• The Brain and Cognitive Learning
• The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition
• General and Specific Knowledge
• Declarative, Procedural, and Self-Regulatory Knowledge
• Cognitive Views of Memory
• Sensory Memory
• Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory Memory
• Perception
• The Role of Attention
• Attention and Multitasking
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What’s Wrong with Multitasking?
• Attention and Teaching
• GUIDELINES: Gaining and Maintaining Attention
• Working Memory
• Capacity of Working Memory
• The Central Executive
• The Phonological Loop
• The Visuospatial Sketchpad
• The Episodic Buffer
• The Duration and Contents of Working Memory
• Cognitive Load and Retaining Information
• Two Kinds of Cognitive Load
• Retaining Information in Working Memory
• Levels of Processing Theory
• Forgetting
• Individual Differences in Working Memory
• Developmental Differences
• Individual Differences
• Is Working Memory Really Separate?
• Long-Term Memory
• Capacity and Duration of Long-Term Memory
• Contents of Long-Term Memory: Explicit (Declarative) Memories
• Propositions and Propositional Networks
• Images
• Two Are Better Than One: Words and Images
• Concepts
• Prototypes, Exemplars, and Theory-Based Categories
• Teaching Concepts
• Schemas
• Episodic Memory
• Contents of Long-Term Memory: Implicit Memories
• Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory
• Spreading Activation
• Reconstruction
• Forgetting and Long-Term Memory
• Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory
• Teaching for Deep, Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications
• Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful Connections
• Elaboration
• FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Organizing Learning
• Organization
• Imagery
• Context
• Desirable Difficulty
• Effective Practice
• Reaching Every Student: Make it Meaningful
• Mnemonics
• If You Have to Memorize . . .
• Lessons for Teachers: Declarative Knowledge
• Development of Procedural Knowledge
• Automated Basic Skills
• GUIDELINES: Helping Students Understand and Remember
• Domain-Specific Strategies
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Remembering the Basics: What Would They Do?
• CHAPTER 9 Complex Cognitive Processes
• Teachers’ Casebook: Uncritical Thinking: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• Metacognition
• Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation
• Individual Differences in Metacognition
• Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition
• Metacognitive Development for Younger Students
• Metacognitive Development for Secondary and College Students (Like You)
• Learning Strategies
• Being Strategic About Learning
• Deciding What Is Important
• Summaries
• Underlining and Highlighting
• Taking Notes
• Visual Tools for Organizing
• Retrieval Practice: Powerful But Underused
• Reading Strategies
• Applying Learning Strategies
• Appropriate Tasks
• Valuing Learning
• Effort and Efficacy
• Reaching Every Student: Teaching How to Learn
• Problem Solving
• Identifying: Problem Finding
• Defining Goals and Representing the Problem
• Focusing Attention on What Is Relevant
• Understanding the Words
• Understanding the Whole Problem
• Translation and Schema Training: Direct Instruction in Schemas
• Translation and Schema Training: Worked Examples
• Worked Examples and Embodied Cognition
• The Results of Problem Representation
• Searching for Possible Solution Strategies
• Algorithms
• Heuristics
• Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back
• Factors That Hinder Problem Solving
• Some Problems with Heuristics
• GUIDELINES: Applying Problem Solving
• Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving
• Knowing What Is Important
• Memory for Patterns and Organization
• Procedural Knowledge
• Planning and Monitoring
• GUIDELINES: Becoming an Expert Student
• Critical Thinking and Argumentation
• What Critical Thinkers Do: Paul and Elder Model
• Applying Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects
• Argumentation
• Two Styles of Argumentation
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving?
• Lessons for Teachers
• Teaching for Transfer
• The Many Views of Transfer
• Teaching for Positive Transfer
• What Is Worth Learning?
• Lessons for Teachers: Supporting Transfer
• Stages of Transfer for Strategies
• FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Promoting Transfer
• Bringing It All Together: Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge
• What Is Robust Knowledge?
• Recognizing and Assessing Robust Knowledge
• Teaching for Robust Knowledge
• Practice
• Worked Examples
• Analogies
• Self-Explanations
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Uncritical Thinking: What Would They Do?
• CHAPTER 10 Constructivism and Designing Learning Environments
• Teachers’ Casebook: Learning to Cooperate: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• Cognitive and Social Constructivism
• Constructivist Views of Learning
• Cognitive Constructivism
• Social Constructivism
• How Is Knowledge Constructed?
• Knowledge: Situated or General?
• Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centered Teaching
• Complex Learning Environments and Authentic Tasks
• Social Negotiation
• Multiple Perspectives and Representations of Content
• Understanding the Knowledge Construction Process
• Student Ownership of Learning
• Designing Constructivist Learning Environments
• Assumptions to Guide the Design of Learning Environments
• Facilitating in a Constructivist Classroom
• Scaffolding
• Advance Organizers as Scaffolding
• Facilitating Through Asking and Answering Deep Questions
• GUIDELINES: Facilitating Deep Questioning
• Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning
• Examples of Inquiry
• Problem-Based Learning
• Research on Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning
• Being Smart About Problem-Based Learning
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning Effective Teaching Approaches?
• Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal Teaching
• Cognitive Apprenticeships in Reading: Reciprocal Teaching
• Applying Reciprocal Teaching
• Collaboration and Cooperation
• Collaboration, Group Work, and Cooperative Learning
• Beyond Groups to Cooperation
• What Can Go Wrong: Misuses of Group Learning
• Tasks for Cooperative Learning
• Highly Structured, Review, and Skill-Building Tasks
• Ill-Structured, Conceptual, and Problem-Solving Tasks
• Social Skills and Communication Tasks
• Setting Up Cooperative Groups
• Assigning Roles
• Giving and Receiving Explanations
• Designs for Cooperation
• Reciprocal Questioning
• Jigsaw
• Constructive/Structured Controversies
• Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning Wisely
• GUIDELINES: Using Cooperative Learning
• Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice
• Designing Learning Environments in a Digital World
• Technology and Learning
• Technology-Rich Environments
• Virtual Learning Environments
• Personal Learning Environments
• Immersive Virtual Learning Environments
• Games
• Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities for Young Children
• Computational Thinking and Coding
• GUIDELINES: Using Computers
• Media/Digital Literacy
• GUIDELINES: Supporting the Development of Media Literacy
• The Flipped Classroom
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Learning to Cooperate: What Would They Do?
• CHAPTER 11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation
• Revised by Ellen L. Usher
• Teachers’ Casebook: Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• Social Cognitive Theory
• A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura
• Beyond Behaviorism
• Triadic Reciprocal Causality
• Modeling: Learning by Observing Others
• Elements of Observational Learning
• Attention
• Retention
• Production
• Motivation and Reinforcement
• Observational Learning in Teaching
• Directing Attention
• Fine Tuning Already-Learned Behaviors
• Strengthening or Weakening Inhibitions
• Teaching New Behaviors
• Arousing Emotion
• GUIDELINES: Using Observational Learning
• Agency and Self-Efficacy
• Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem
• Sources of Self-Efficacy
• Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching
• GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Efficacy
• Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy
• Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will
• What Influences Self-Regulation?
• Knowledge
• Motivation
• Volition
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are “Grittier” Students More Successful?
• Development of Self-Regulation
• A Social Cognitive Model of Self-Regulated Learning
• Reaching Every Student: Examples of Self-Regulation in Two Classrooms
• Writing
• Math Problem Solving
• Technology and Self-Regulation
• Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive Behavior Modification
• Emotional Self-Regulation
• GUIDELINES: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation
• Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning
• Teacher Stress, Efficacy, and Self-Regulated Learning
• Designing Classrooms for Self-Regulation
• Complex Tasks
• Control
• Self-Evaluation
• Collaboration
• Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would They Do?
• CHAPTER 12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching
• Teachers’ Casebook: Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• What Is Motivation?
• Meeting Some Students
• Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
• Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: Lessons for Teachers
• What You Already Know About Motivation
• Needs and Self-Determination
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness
• Self-Determination in the Classroom
• Information and Control
• The Need for Relatedness
• Needs: Lessons for Teachers
• GUIDELINES: Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy
• Goals and Goal Orientations
• Types of Goals and Goal Orientations
• Four Achievement Goal Orientations in School
• Wait—Are Performance Goals Always Bad?
• Social and Work-Avoidance Goals
• Goals in Social Context
• Feedback, Goal Framing, and Goal Acceptance
• Goals: Lessons for Teachers
• Expectancy-Value-Cost Explanations
• Costs
• Tasks Value
• Lessons for Teachers
• Attributions and Beliefs About Knowledge, Ability, and Self-Worth
• Attributions in the Classroom
• Teacher Attributions Trigger Student Attributions
• Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs
• Mindsets and Beliefs About Ability
• Mindsets: Lessons for Teachers
• Beliefs About Self-Worth
• Learned Helplessness
• Self-Worth
• Self-Worth: Lessons for Teachers
• GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Worth
• How Do You Feel About Learning? Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety
• Tapping Interests
• Two Kinds of Interests
• Catching and Holding Interests
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning?
• Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity
• GUIDELINES: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity
• Flow
• Emotions and Anxiety
• Neuroscience and Emotion
• Achievement Emotions
• Arousal and Anxiety
• Anxiety in the Classroom
• How Does Anxiety Interfere with Achievement?
• Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety
• GUIDELINES: Coping with Anxiety
• Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers
• Motivation to Learn in School: On Target
• Tasks for Learning
• Beyond Task Value to Genuine Appreciation
• Authentic Tasks
• Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing Accomplishment
• Supporting Choices
• Recognizing Accomplishment
• Grouping, Evaluation, and Time
• Grouping and Goal Structures
• Evaluation
• Time
• Putting It All Together
• Diversity in Motivation
• Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation
• Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations
• Do I Want To Do It? Seeing the Value of Learning
• What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Staying Focused on the Task
• FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Motivation to Learn
• Do I Belong in This Classroom?
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Motivating Students When Resources are Thin: What Would They Do?
• PART III TEACHING AND ASSESSING
• CHAPTER 13 Managing Learning Environments
• Teachers’ Casebook: Bullies and Victims: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• The What and Why of Classroom Management
• The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation
• The Goals of Classroom Management
• Access to Learning
• More Time for Learning
• Management Means Relationships
• Management for Self-Management
• Creating a Positive Learning Environment
• Some Research Results
• Routines and Rules Required
• Routines and Procedures
• Rules
• GUIDELINES: Establishing Class Routines
• Rules for Elementary School
• Rules for Secondary School
• Consequences
• Who Sets the Rules and Consequences?
• Planning Spaces for Learning
• Personal Territories and Seating Arrangements
• Interest Areas
• Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class
• Effective Managers for Elementary Students
• GUIDELINES: Designing Learning Spaces
• Effective Managers for Secondary Students
• Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning
• Encouraging Engagement
• Prevention Is the Best Medicine
• GUIDELINES: Keeping Students Engaged
• Withitness
• Overlapping and Group Focus
• Movement Management
• Student Social Skills as Prevention
• Caring Relationships: Connections with School
• Teacher Connections
• School Connections
• Creating Communities of Care for Adolescents
• Dealing with Discipline Problems
• Stopping Problems Quickly
• GUIDELINES: Creating Caring Relationships
• If You Impose Penalties
• Teacher-Imposed Penalties versus Student Responsibility
• GUIDELINES: Imposing Penalties
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea?
• What About Zero Tolerance?
• Bullying and Cyberbullying
• Victims
• Why Do Students Bully?
• What Can Teachers Do? Bullying and Teasing
• Cyberbullying
• Special Problems with High School Students
• GUIDELINES: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations
• The Need for Communication
• Message Sent—Message Received
• Empathetic Listening
• When Listening Is Not Enough: I-Messages, Assertive Discipline, and Problem Solving
• “I” Messages
• Assertive Discipline
• Confrontations and Negotiations
• Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Restorative Justice
• Peer Mediation
• Restorative Justice
• Research on Management Approaches
• Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management
• FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Classroom Management
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Bullies and Victims: What Would They Do?
• CHAPTER 14 Teaching Every Student
• Teachers’ Casebook: Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• Research on Teaching
• Characteristics of Effective Teachers
• Clarity and Organization
• Enthusiasm and Warmth
• Knowledge for Teaching
• Research on Teaching Strategies
• The First Step: Planning
• Research on Planning
• Learning Targets
• An Example of State-Level Goals: The Common Core
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are the Common Core Standards a Valuable Guide for Teaching?
• Classrooms Targets for Learning
• Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies
• The Cognitive Domain
• The Affective Domain
• The Psychomotor Domain
• Another Take on Learning Targets
• Planning from a Constructivist Perspective
• GUIDELINES: Using Learning Targets
• Teaching Approaches
• Direct Instruction
• Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions
• Why Does Direct Instruction Work?
• Evaluating Direct Instruction
• Seatwork and Homework
• Seatwork
• GUIDELINES: Effective Direct Instruction
• Homework
• The Case Against Homework
• Homework for Older Students
• Beware of Either/Or
• Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback
• FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Homework
• Kinds of Questions
• Asking Deep Questions
• Fitting The Questions to the Students
• Responding to Student Answers
• Group Discussion
• Fitting Teaching to Your Goals
• Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design
• GUIDELINES: Productive Group Discussions
• Differentiated Instruction and Adaptive Teaching
• Within-Class and Flexible Grouping
• The Problems with Ability Grouping
• Flexible Grouping
• GUIDELINES: Using Flexible Grouping
• Adaptive Teaching
• Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms
• Technology and Differentiation
• Teacher Expectations
• Two Kinds of Expectation Effects
• Sources of Expectations
• Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement?
• Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate Expectations
• GUIDELINES: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would They Do?
• CHAPTER 15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing
• Teachers’ Casebook: Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would You Do?
• Overview and Objectives
• Basics of Assessment
• Measurement and Assessment
• Formative, Interim, and Summative Assessment
• Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity
• Reliability of Test Scores
• Validity
• Absence of Bias
• Classroom Assessment: Testing
• Interpreting Any Test Score
• Norm-Referenced Test Interpretations
• Criterion-Referenced Test Interpretations
• Using the Tests from Textbooks
• Selected-Response Testing
• Using Multiple-Choice Tests
• Writing Multiple-Choice Questions
• Constructed Responses: Essay Testing
• Constructing Essay Tests
• Evaluating Essays
• GUIDELINES: Writing Multiple-Choice Items
• Assessing Traditional Testing
• Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments
• Informal Assessments
• Exit Tickets
• Journals
• Involving Students in Assessments
• Authentic Assessments: Portfolios and Exhibitions
• Portfolios
• Exhibitions
• Evaluating Portfolios and Performances
• Scoring Rubrics
• GUIDELINES: Creating Portfolios
• GUIDELINES: Developing a Rubric
• Reliability, Validity, Generalizability
• Diversity and Bias in Performance Assessment
• Assessing Complex Thinking
• Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers
• Grading
• Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading
• Effects of Grading on Students
• The Value of Failing?
• Retention in Grade
• Grades and Motivation
• POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Children Be Held Back?
• Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families
• Standardized Testing
• Types of Scores
• Measurements of Central Tendency and Standard Deviation
• GUIDELINES: Using Any Grading System
• The Normal Distribution
• Percentile Rank Scores
• Grade-Equivalent Scores
• Standard Scores
• Interpreting Standardized Test Reports
• Discussing Test Results with Families
• Accountability and High-Stakes Testing
• FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Conferences and Explaining Test Results
• Making Decisions
• What Do Teachers Think?
• Documented Problems with High-Stakes Testing
• New Directions: PARCC and SBAC
• In Sum: Using High-Stakes Testing Well
• GUIDELINES: Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing
• Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-Stakes Tests
• Teacher Accountability and Evaluation
• Value-Added Measures
• Quality Standardized Assessment: Lessons for Teachers
• Summary and Key Terms
• Practice Using What You Have Learned
• Connect and Extend to Licensure
• Teachers’ Casebook: Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would They Do?
• Licensure Appendix
• Glossary
• References
• Name Index
• Subject Index