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• Table of Contents
• PREFACE
• What’s New in This Edition?
• Acknowledgments
• 1 INTRODUCTION
• 1.1 Definition of Surveying
• 1.2 Geomatics
• 1.3 History of Surveying
• 1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys
• 1.5 Importance of Surveying
• 1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys
• 1.7 Surveying Safety
• 1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems
• 1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies
• 1.10 The Surveying Profession
• 1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations
• 1.12 Surveying on the Internet
• 1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 2 UNITS, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, AND FIELD NOTES
• PART I: UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
• 2.1 Introduction
• 2.2 Units of Measurement
• 2.3 International System of Units (SI)
• 2.4 Significant Figures
• 2.5 Rounding Off Numbers
• PART II: FIELD NOTES
• 2.6 Field Notes
• 2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes
• 2.8 Types of Field Books
• 2.9 Kinds of Notes
• 2.10 Arrangements of Notes
• 2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes
• 2.12 Introduction to Data Collectors
• 2.13 Transfer of Files from Data Collectors
• 2.14 Digital Data File Management
• 2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Collectors
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 3 THEORY OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS
• 3.1 Introduction
• 3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations
• 3.3 Errors in Measurements
• 3.4 Mistakes
• 3.5 Sources of Errors in Making Observations
• 3.6 Types of Errors
• 3.7 Precision and Accuracy
• 3.8 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors
• 3.9 Probability
• 3.10 Most Probable Value
• 3.11 Residuals
• 3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors
• 3.13 General Laws of Probability
• 3.14 Measures of Precision
• 3.15 Interpretation of Standard Deviation
• 3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors
• 3.17 Error Propagation
• 3.18 Applications
• 3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations
• 3.20 Weights of Observations
• 3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment
• 3.22 Using Software
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 4 LEVELING—THEORY, METHODS, AND EQUIPMENT
• PART I: LEVELING—THEORY AND METHODS
• 4.1 Introduction
• 4.2 Definitions
• 4.3 North American Vertical Datum
• 4.4 Curvature and Refraction
• 4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation
• PART II: EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
• 4.6 Categories of Levels
• 4.7 Telescopes
• 4.8 Level Vials
• 4.9 Tilting Levels
• 4.10 Automatic Levels
• 4.11 Digital Levels
• 4.12 Tripods
• 4.13 Hand Level
• 4.14 Level Rods
• 4.15 Testing and Adjusting Levels
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 5 LEVELING—FIELD PROCEDURES AND COMPUTATIONS
• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level
• 5.3 Duties of a Rodperson
• 5.4 Differential Leveling
• 5.5 Precision
• 5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits
• 5.7 Reciprocal Leveling
• 5.8 Three-Wire Leveling
• 5.9 Profile Leveling
• 5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling
• 5.11 Use of the Hand Level
• 5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling
• 5.13 Mistakes
• 5.14 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes
• 5.15 Using Software
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 6 DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
• PART I: METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES
• 6.1 Introduction
• 6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements
• 6.3 Pacing
• 6.4 Odometer Readings
• 6.5 Optical Rangefinders
• 6.6 Tacheometry
• 6.7 Subtense Bar
• PART II: DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS BY TAPING
• 6.8 Introduction to Taping
• 6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories
• 6.10 Care of Taping Equipment
• 6.11 Taping on Level Ground
• 6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground
• 6.13 Slope Measurements
• 6.14 Sources of Error in Taping
• 6.15 Tape Problems
• 6.16 Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem
• PART III: ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
• 6.17 Introduction
• 6.18 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy
• 6.19 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement
• 6.20 Electro-Optical Instruments
• 6.21 Total Station Instruments
• 6.22 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors
• 6.23 Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances
• 6.24 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement
• 6.25 Using Software
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 7 ANGLES, AZIMUTHS, AND BEARINGS
• 7.1 Introduction
• 7.2 Units of Angle Measurement
• 7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles
• 7.4 Direction of a Line
• 7.5 Azimuths
• 7.6 Bearings
• 7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings
• 7.8 Computing Azimuths
• 7.9 Computing Bearings
• 7.10 The Compass and the Earth’s Magnetic Field
• 7.11 Magnetic Declination
• 7.12 Variations in Magnetic Declination
• 7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination
• 7.14 Local Attraction
• 7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems
• 7.16 Mistakes
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 8 TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS; ANGLE OBSERVATIONS
• PART I: TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS
• 8.1 Introduction
• 8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments
• 8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments
• 8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument
• 8.5 Handling and Setting Up a Total Station Instrument
• 8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments
• PART II: ANGLE OBSERVATIONS
• 8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances
• 8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments
• 8.9 Observing Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method
• 8.10 Closing the Horizon
• 8.11 Observing Deflection Angles
• 8.12 Observing Azimuths
• 8.13 Observing Vertical Angles
• 8.14 Sights and Marks
• 8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line
• 8.16 Balancing-In
• 8.17 Random Traverse
• 8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences
• 8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories
• 8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work
• 8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations
• 8.22 Mistakes
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 9 TRAVERSING
• 9.1 Introduction
• 9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions
• 9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths
• 9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations
• 9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations
• 9.6 Traverse Field Notes
• 9.7 Angle Misclosure
• 9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments
• 9.9 Radial Traversing
• 9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing
• 9.11 Mistakes in Traversing
• Problems
• 10 TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS
• 10.1 Introduction
• 10.2 Balancing Angles
• 10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings
• 10.4 Departures and Latitudes
• 10.5 Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions
• 10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision
• 10.7 Traverse Adjustment
• 10.8 Rectangular Coordinates
• 10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations
• 10.10 Inversing
• 10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions
• 10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys
• 10.13 Use of Open Traverses
• 10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems
• 10.15 Traverse Computations Using Computers
• 10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations
• 10.17 Mistakes in Traverse Computations
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 11 COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN SURVEYING CALCULATIONS
• 11.1 Introduction
• 11.2 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles
• 11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line
• 11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions
• 11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle
• 11.6 Intersection of Two Circles
• 11.7 Three-Point Resection
• 11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation
• 11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem
• 11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection
• 11.11 Software
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 12 AREA
• 12.1 Introduction
• 12.2 Methods of Measuring Area
• 12.3 Area by Division into Simple Figures
• 12.4 Area by Offsets from Straight Lines
• 12.5 Area by Coordinates
• 12.6 Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method
• 12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries
• 12.8 Partitioning of Lands
• 12.9 Area by Measurements from Maps
• 12.10 Software
• 12.11 Sources of Error in Determining Areas
• 12.12 Mistakes in Determining Areas
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 13 GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
• 13.1 Introduction
• 13.2 Overview of GPS
• 13.3 The GPS Signal
• 13.4 Reference Coordinate Systems
• 13.5 Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning
• 13.6 Errors in Observations
• 13.7 Differential Positioning
• 13.8 Kinematic Methods
• 13.9 Relative Positioning
• 13.10 Other Satellite Navigation Systems
• 13.11 The Future
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 14 GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—STATIC SURVEYS
• 14.1 Introduction
• 14.2 Field Procedures in Satellite Surveys
• 14.3 Planning Satellite Surveys
• 14.4 Performing Static Surveys
• 14.5 Data Processing and Analysis
• 14.6 Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys
• 14.7 Mistakes in Satellite Surveys
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 15 GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS—KINEMATIC SURVEYS
• 15.1 Introduction
• 15.2 Planning of Kinematic Surveys
• 15.3 Initialization
• 15.4 Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys
• 15.5 Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys
• 15.6 Performing Post Processed Kinematic Surveys
• 15.7 Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys
• 15.8 Real-Time Networks
• 15.9 Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys
• 15.10 Machine Control
• 15.11 Errors in Kinematic Surveys
• 15.12 Mistakes in Kinematic Surveys
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 16 ADJUSTMENTS BY LEAST SQUARES
• 16.1 Introduction
• 16.2 Fundamental Condition of Least Squares
• 16.3 Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method
• 16.4 Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment
• 16.5 Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities
• 16.6 Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits
• 16.7 Propagation of Errors
• 16.8 Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors
• 16.9 Least-Squares Adjustment of Conventional Horizontal Plane Surveys
• 16.10 The Error Ellipse
• 16.11 Adjustment Procedures
• 16.12 Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations
• 16.13 Software
• 16.14 Conclusions
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 17 MAPPING SURVEYS
• 17.1 Introduction
• 17.2 Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys
• 17.3 Map Scale
• 17.4 Control for Mapping Surveys
• 17.5 Contours
• 17.6 Characteristics of Contours
• 17.7 Direct and Indirect Methods of Locating Contours
• 17.8 Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems
• 17.9 Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details
• 17.10 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation
• 17.11 Selection of Field Method
• 17.12 Working with Data Collectors and Field-to-Finish Software
• 17.13 Hydrographic Surveys
• 17.14 Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys
• 17.15 Mistakes in Mapping Surveys
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 18 MAPPING
• 18.1 Introduction
• 18.2 Availability of Maps and Related Information
• 18.3 National Mapping Program
• 18.4 Accuracy Standards for Mapping
• 18.5 Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures
• 18.6 Map Design
• 18.7 Map Layout
• 18.8 Basic Map Plotting Procedures
• 18.9 Contour Interval
• 18.10 Plotting Contours
• 18.11 Lettering
• 18.12 Cartographic Map Elements
• 18.13 Drafting Materials
• 18.14 Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems
• 18.15 Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping
• 18.16 Sources of Error in Mapping
• 18.17 Mistakes in Mapping
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 19 CONTROL SURVEYS AND GEODETIC REDUCTIONS
• 19.1 Introduction
• 19.2 The Ellipsoid and Geoid
• 19.3 The Conventional Terrestrial Pole
• 19.4 Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature
• 19.5 Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical
• 19.6 U.S. Reference Frames
• 19.7 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys
• 19.8 The National Spatial Reference System
• 19.9 Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network
• 19.10 Hierarchy of the National Vertical Control Network
• 19.11 Control Point Descriptions
• 19.12 Field Procedures for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys
• 19.13 Field Procedures for Vertical Control Surveys
• 19.14 Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values
• 19.15 Geodetic Position Computations
• 19.16 The Local Geodetic Coordinate System
• 19.17 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations
• 19.18 Software
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 20 STATE PLANE COORDINATES AND OTHER MAP PROJECTIONS
• 20.1 Introduction
• 20.2 Projections Used in State Plane Coordinate Systems
• 20.3 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
• 20.4 Transverse Mercator Projection
• 20.5 State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83
• 20.6 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System
• 20.7 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System
• 20.8 Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids
• 20.9 Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations
• 20.10 Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another
• 20.11 Conversions Between SPCS27 and SPCS83
• 20.12 The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection
• 20.13 Other Map Projections
• 20.14 Map Projection Software
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 21 BOUNDARY SURVEYS
• 21.1 Introduction
• 21.2 Categories of Land Surveys
• 21.3 Historical Perspectives
• 21.4 Property Description by Metes and Bounds
• 21.5 Property Description by Block-and-Lot System
• 21.6 Property Description by Coordinates
• 21.7 Retracement Surveys
• 21.8 Subdivision Surveys
• 21.9 Partitioning Land
• 21.10 Registration of Title
• 21.11 Adverse Possession and Easements
• 21.12 Condominium Surveys
• 21.13 Geographic and Land Information Systems
• 21.14 Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys
• 21.15 Mistakes
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 22 SURVEYS OF THE PUBLIC LANDS
• 22.1 Introduction
• 22.2 Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands
• 22.3 Initial Point
• 22.4 Principal Meridian
• 22.5 Baseline
• 22.6 Standard Parallels (Correction Lines)
• 22.7 Guide Meridians
• 22.8 Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines
• 22.9 Designation of Townships
• 22.10 Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships
• 22.11 Subdivision of a Township into Sections
• 22.12 Subdivision of Sections
• 22.13 Fractional Sections
• 22.14 Notes
• 22.15 Outline of Subdivision Steps
• 22.16 Marking Corners
• 22.17 Witness Corners
• 22.18 Meander Corners
• 22.19 Lost and Obliterated Corners
• 22.20 Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys
• 22.21 Descriptions by Township Section and Smaller Subdivision
• 22.22 BLM Land Information System
• 22.23 Sources of Error
• 22.24 Mistakes
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 23 CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS
• 23.1 Introduction
• 23.2 Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys
• 23.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control
• 23.4 Staking Out a Pipeline
• 23.5 Staking Pipeline Grades
• 23.6 Staking Out a Building
• 23.7 Staking Out Highways
• 23.8 Other Construction Surveys
• 23.9 Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments
• 23.10 Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment
• 23.11 Machine Guidance and Control
• 23.12 As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning
• 23.13 Sources of Error in Construction Surveys
• 23.14 Mistakes
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 24 HORIZONTAL CURVES
• 24.1 Introduction
• 24.2 Degree of Circular Curve
• 24.3 Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas
• 24.4 Circular Curve Stationing
• 24.5 General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles
• 24.6 Computing Deflection Angles and Chords
• 24.7 Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords
• 24.8 Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords
• 24.9 Setups on Curve
• 24.10 Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords
• 24.11 Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords
• 24.12 Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve
• 24.13 Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates
• 24.14 Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations
• 24.15 Circular Curve Layout by Offsets
• 24.16 Special Circular Curve Problems
• 24.17 Compound and Reverse Curves
• 24.18 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
• 24.19 Spirals
• 24.20 Computation of “As-Built” Circular Alignments
• 24.21 Sources of Error in Laying Out Circular Curves
• 24.22 Mistakes
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 25 VERTICAL CURVES
• 25.1 Introduction
• 25.2 General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve
• 25.3 Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve
• 25.4 High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve
• 25.5 Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent Offset Equation
• 25.6 Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola
• 25.7 Curve Computations by Proportion
• 25.8 Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve
• 25.9 Machine Control in Grading Operations
• 25.10 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve
• 25.11 Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point
• 25.12 Sight Distance
• 25.13 Sources of Error in Laying Out Vertical Curves
• 25.14 Mistakes
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 26 VOLUMES
• 26.1 Introduction
• 26.2 Methods of Volume Measurement
• 26.3 The Cross-Section Method
• 26.4 Types of Cross Sections
• 26.5 Average-End-Area Formula
• 26.6 Determining End Areas
• 26.7 Computing Slope Intercepts
• 26.8 Prismoidal Formula
• 26.9 Volume Computations
• 26.10 Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method
• 26.11 Contour-Area Method
• 26.12 Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge
• 26.13 Software
• 26.14 Sources of Error in Determining Volumes
• 26.15 Mistakes
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 27 PHOTOGRAMMETRY
• 27.1 Introduction
• 27.2 Uses of Photogrammetry
• 27.3 Aerial Cameras
• 27.4 Types of Aerial Photographs
• 27.5 Vertical Aerial Photographs
• 27.6 Scale of a Vertical Photograph
• 27.7 Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph
• 27.8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph
• 27.9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph
• 27.10 Stereoscopic Parallax
• 27.11 Stereoscopic Viewing
• 27.12 Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax
• 27.13 Analytical Photogrammetry
• 27.14 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments
• 27.15 Orthophotos
• 27.16 Ground Control for Photogrammetry
• 27.17 Flight Planning
• 27.18 Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems
• 27.19 Remote Sensing
• 27.20 Software
• 27.21 Sources of Error in Photogrammetry
• 27.22 Mistakes
• Problems
• Bibliography
• 28 INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
• 28.1 Introduction
• 28.2 Land Information Systems
• 28.3 GIS Data Sources and Classifications
• 28.4 Spatial Data
• 28.5 Nonspatial Data
• 28.6 Data Format Conversions
• 28.7 Creating GIS Databases
• 28.8 Metadata
• 28.9 GIS Analytical Functions
• 28.10 GIS Applications
• 28.11 Data Sources
• Problems
• Bibliography
• APPENDIX A: DUMPY LEVELS, TRANSITS, AND THEODOLITES
• APPENDIX B: EXAMPLE NOTEFORMS
• APPENDIX C: ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
• APPENDIX D: USING THE WORKSHEETS FROM THE COMPANION WEBSITE
• APPENDIX E: INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES
• APPENDIX F: U.S. STATE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM DEFINING PARAMETERS
• APPENDIX G: ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS
• INDEX