Efnisyfirlit

• Cover Page
• Half Title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Preface to the First Edition
• Preface to the Second Edition
• Acknowledgements
• Part One Glaciers
• 1 Introduction
• 1.1 Glacier systems
• 1.1.1 Mass balance
• 1.1.2 Meltwater
• 1.1.3 Glacier motion
• 1.1.4 Glaciers and sea-level change
• 1.1.5 Erosion and debris transport
• 1.1.6 Glacial sediments, landforms and landscapes
• 1.2 Glacier morphology
• 1.2.1 Ice sheets and ice caps
• 1.2.2 Glaciers constrained by topography
• 1.2.3 Ice shelves
• 1.3 Present distribution of glaciers
• 1.3.1 Influence of latitude and altitude
• 1.3.2 Influence of aspect, relief and distance from a moisture source
• 1.4 Past distribution of glaciers
• 1.4.1 ‘Icehouse’ and ‘greenhouse’ worlds
• 1.4.2 Cenozoic glaciation
• 2 Snow, Ice and Climate
• 2.1 Introduction
• 2.2 Surface energy balance
• 2.2.1 Changes of state and temperature
• 2.2.2 Shortwave radiation
• 2.2.3 Longwave radiation
• 2.2.4 Sensible and latent heat: turbulent fluxes
• 2.2.5 Energy supplied by rain
• 2.2.6 Why is glacier ice blue?
• 2.3 Ice temperature
• 2.3.1 The melting point of ice
• 2.3.2 Controls on ice temperature
• 2.3.3 Thermal structure of glaciers and ice sheets
• 2.4 Processes of accumulation and ablation
• 2.4.1 Snow and ice accumulation
• 2.4.2 Transformation of snow to ice
• 2.4.3 Melting of snow and ice
• 2.4.4 Sublimation and evaporation
• 2.4.5 The influence of debris cover
• 2.5 Mass balance
• 2.5.1 Definitions
• 2.5.2 Measurement of mass balance
• 2.5.3 Annual mass balance cycles
• 2.5.4 Mass balance gradients
• 2.5.5 The equilibrium line
• 2.5.6 Glaciation levels or glaciation thresholds
• 2.5.7 Glacier sensitivity to climate change
• 2.6 Glacier–climate interactions
• 2.6.1 Effects of glaciers and ice sheets on the atmosphere
• 2.7 Ice cores
• 2.7.1 Ice coring programmes
• 2.7.2 Stable isotopes
• 2.7.3 Ancient atmospheres: the gas content of glacier ice
• 2.7.4 Solutes and particulates
• 3 Glacier Hydrology
• 3.1 Introduction
• 3.2 Basic concepts
• 3.2.1 Water sources and routing
• 3.2.2 Hydraulic potential
• 3.2.3 Resistance to flow
• 3.2.4 Channel wall processes: melting, freezing and ice deformation
• 3.3 Supraglacial and englacial drainage
• 3.3.1 Supraglacial water storage and drainage
• 3.3.2 Englacial drainage
• 3.4 Subglacial drainage
• 3.4.1 Subglacial channels
• 3.4.2 Water films
• 3.4.3 Linked cavity systems
• 3.4.4 Groundwater flow
• 3.4.5 Water at the ice–sediment interface
• 3.5 Glacial hydrological systems
• 3.5.1 Temperate glaciers
• 3.5.2 Polythermal glaciers
• 3.5.3 Modelling glacial hydrological systems
• 3.6 Proglacial runoff
• 3.6.1 Seasonal and shorter-term cycles
• 3.6.2 Runoff and climate change
• 3.7 Glacial lakes and outburst floods
• 3.7.1 Introduction
• 3.7.2 Moraine-dammed lakes
• 3.7.3 Ice-dammed lakes
• 3.7.4 Icelandic subglacial lakes
• 3.7.5 Estimating GLOF magnitudes
• 3.8 Life in glaciers
• 3.8.1 Supraglacial ecosystems
• 3.8.2 Subglacial ecosystems
• 3.9 Glacier hydrochemistry
• 3.9.1 Overview
• 3.9.2 Snow chemistry
• 3.9.3 Chemical weathering processes
• 3.9.4 Subglacial chemical weathering
• 3.9.5 Proglacial environments
• 3.9.6 Rates of chemical erosion
• 4 Processes of Glacier Motion
• 4.1 Introduction
• 4.2 Stress and strain
• 4.2.1 Stress
• 4.2.2 Strain
• 4.2.3 Rheology: stress–strain relationships
• 4.2.4 Force balance in glaciers
• 4.3 Deformation of ice
• 4.3.1 Glen’s Flow Law
• 4.3.2 Crystal fabric, impurities and water content
• 4.3.3 Ice creep velocities
• 4.4 Sliding
• 4.4.1 Frozen beds
• 4.4.2 Sliding of wet-based ice
• 4.4.3 Glacier–bed friction
• 4.4.4 The role of water
• 4.5 Deformable beds
• 4.5.1 The Boulton–Hindmarsh model
• 4.5.2 Laboratory testing of subglacial tills
• 4.5.3 Direct observations of deformable glacier beds
• 4.5.4 Rheology of subglacial till
• 4.6 Rates of basal motion
• 4.6.1 ‘Sliding laws’
• 4.6.2 Local and non-local controls on ice velocity
• 4.7 Crevasses and other structures: strain made visible
• 4.7.1 Crevasses
• 4.7.2 Crevasse patterns
• 4.7.3 Layering, foliation and related structures
• 5 Glacier Dynamics
• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.2 Understanding glacier dynamics
• 5.2.1 Balance velocities
• 5.2.2 Deviations from the balance velocity
• 5.2.3 Changes in ice thickness: continuity
• 5.2.4 Thermodynamics
• 5.3 Glacier models
• 5.3.1 Overview
• 5.3.2 Equilibrium glacier profiles
• 5.3.3 Time-evolving glacier models
• 5.4 Dynamics of valley glaciers
• 5.4.1 Intra-annual velocity variations
• 5.4.2 Multi-annual variations
• 5.5 Calving glaciers
• 5.5.1 Flow of calving glaciers
• 5.5.2 Calving processes
• 5.5.3 ‘Calving laws’
• 5.5.4 Advance and retreat of calving glaciers
• 5.6 Ice shelves
• 5.6.1 Mass balance of ice shelves
• 5.6.2 Flow of ice shelves
• 5.6.3 Ice shelf break-up
• 5.7 Glacier surges
• 5.7.1 Overview
• 5.7.2 Distribution of surging glaciers
• 5.7.3 Temperate glacier surges
• 5.7.4 Polythermal surging glaciers
• 5.7.5 Surge mechanisms
• 6 The Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets
• 6.1 Introduction
• 6.2 The Greenland Ice Sheet
• 6.2.1 Overview
• 6.2.2 Climate and surface mass balance
• 6.2.3 Ice sheet flow
• 6.2.4 Ice streams and outlet glaciers
• 6.3 The Antarctic Ice Sheet
• 6.3.1 Overview
• 6.3.2 Climate and mass balance
• 6.3.3 Flow of inland ice
• 6.3.4 Ice streams
• 6.3.5 Hydrology and subglacial lakes
• 6.3.6 Ice stream stagnation and reactivation
• 6.3.7 Stability of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet
• 7 Glaciers and Sea-Level Change
• 7.1 Introduction
• 7.2 Causes of sea-level change
• 7.2.1 Overview
• 7.2.2 Glacio-eustasy and global ice volume
• 7.2.3 Glacio-isostasy and ice sheet loading
• 7.3 Sea-level change over glacial–interglacial cycles
• 7.3.1 Ice sheet fluctuations and eustatic sea-level change
• 7.3.2 Sea-level histories in glaciated regions
• 7.4 Glaciers and recent sea-level change
• 7.4.1 Recorded sea-level change
• 7.4.2 Global glacier mass balance
• 7.5 Future sea-level change
• 7.5.1 IPCC climate and sea-level projections
• 7.5.2 Predicting the glacial contribution to sea-level change
• Part Two Glaciation
• 8 Erosional Processes, Forms and Landscapes
• 8.1 Introduction
• 8.2 Subglacial erosion
• 8.2.1 Rock fracture: general principles
• 8.2.2 Abrasion
• 8.2.3 Quarrying
• 8.2.4 Erosion beneath cold ice
• 8.2.5 Erosion of soft beds
• 8.3 Small-scale erosional forms
• 8.3.1 Striae and polished surfaces
• 8.3.2 Rat tails
• 8.3.3 Chattermarks, gouges and fractures
• 8.3.4 P-forms
• 8.4 Intermediate-scale erosional forms
• 8.4.1 Roches moutonnées
• 8.4.2 Whalebacks and rock drumlins
• 8.4.3 Crag and tails
• 8.4.4 Channels
• 8.5 Large-scale erosional landforms
• 8.5.1 Rock basins and overdeepenings
• 8.5.2 Basins and overdeepenings in soft sediments
• 8.5.3 Troughs and fjords
• 8.5.4 Cirques
• 8.5.5 Strandflats
• 8.6 Landscapes of glacial erosion
• 8.6.1 Areal scouring
• 8.6.2 Selective linear erosion
• 8.6.3 Landscapes of little or no glacial erosion
• 8.6.4 Alpine landscapes
• 8.6.5 Cirque landscapes
• 8.6.6 Continent-scale patterns of erosion
• 9 Debris Entrainment and Transport
• 9.1 Introduction
• 9.2 Approaches to the study of glacial sediments
• 9.2.1 The glacial debris cascade
• 9.2.2 Spatial hierarchies of sediments and landforms
• 9.3 Glacial debris entrainment
• 9.3.1 Supraglacial debris entrainment
• 9.3.2 Incorporation of debris into basal ice
• 9.4 Debris transport and release
• 9.4.1 Subglacial transport
• 9.4.2 High-level debris transport
• 9.4.3 Glacifluvial transport
• 9.5 Effects of transport on debris
• 9.5.1 Granulometry
• 9.5.2 Clast morphology
• 9.5.3 Particle micromorphology
• 10 Glacigenic Sediments and Depositional Processes
• 10.1 Introduction
• 10.2 Sediment description and classification
• 10.2.1 Sediment description
• 10.2.2 Deformation structures
• 10.2.3 Primary and secondary deposits
• 10.3 Primary glacigenic deposits (till)
• 10.3.1 Overview
• 10.3.2 Processes of subglacial till formation
• 10.3.3 Glacitectonite
• 10.3.4 Subglacial traction till
• 10.4 Glacifluvial deposits
• 10.4.1 Terminology and classification of glacifluvial sediments
• 10.4.2 Plane bed deposits
• 10.4.3 Ripple cross-laminated facies
• 10.4.4 Dunes
• 10.4.5 Antidunes
• 10.4.6 Scour and minor channel fills
• 10.4.7 Gravel sheets
• 10.4.8 Silt and mud drapes
• 10.4.9 Hyperconcentrated flow depositsc
• 10.5 Gravitational mass movement deposits and syn-sedimentary deformation structures
• 10.5.1 Overview
• 10.5.2 Fall deposits
• 10.5.3 Slide and slump deposits
• 10.5.4 Debris (sediment-gravity) flow deposits
• 10.5.5 Turbidites
• 10.5.6 Clastic dykes and hydrofracture fills
• 10.6 Glacimarine and glacilacustrine deposits
• 10.6.1 Water body characteristics and sediment influx
• 10.6.2 Depositional processes
• 10.6.3 Varves and other glacilacustrine overflow/interflow deposits
• 10.6.4 Laminated glacimarine sediments
• 10.6.5 Ice-rafted debris and undermelt deposits
• 10.6.6 Iceberg grounding structures and sediments
• 10.6.7 Fossiliferous deposits and biogenic oozes
• 10.7 Winnowing structures (lags, coquinas and boulder pavements)
• 11 Sediment–Landform Associations
• 11.1 Introduction
• 11.2 Subglacial associations
• 11.2.1 Subglacial facies associations
• 11.2.2 Subglacial bedforms
• 11.2.3 Flutings
• 11.2.4 Drumlins, mega-flutings and mega-scale glacial lineations (MSGL)
• 11.2.5 Ribbed (Rogen) terrain
• 11.2.6 Ice stream shear margin moraines
• 11.2.7 Subglacial hummocky terrain and overridden moraines
• 11.2.8 Mega-flood explanation for subglacial bedform genesis
• 11.2.9 Crevasse-squeeze ridges
• 11.2.10 Eskers
• 11.2.11 Subglacial volcanic forms
• 11.3 Ice-marginal moraines
• 11.3.1 Processes and patterns of ice-marginal deposition
• 11.3.2 Proglacial glacitectonic landforms
• 11.3.3 Push and squeeze moraines
• 11.3.4 Dump moraines/ice-marginal aprons and latero-frontal moraines
• 11.3.5 Latero-frontal fans and ramps
• 11.4 Supraglacial associations
• 11.4.1 Medial moraines
• 11.4.2 Supraglacial hummocky moraine and controlled moraine
• 11.4.3 Kame and kettle topography
• 11.4.4 Ice-walled lake plains and supraglacial lake deposits
• 11.4.5 Kame terraces
• 11.4.6 Pitted sandar
• 11.5 Proglacial associations
• 11.5.1 Sandar and valley trains
• 11.5.2 Paraglacial associations
• 11.6 Glacilacustrine and glacimarine associations
• 11.6.1 Grounding-line fans
• 11.6.2 Subaqueous moraines
• 11.6.3 Grounding-line wedges: till deltas, till tongues and trough-mouth fans
• 11.6.4 Ice shelf grounding-line deposits and ice shelf moraines
• 11.6.5 Deltas
• 12 Landsystems and Palaeoglaciology
• 12.1 Introduction
• 12.2 Approaches to large-scale investigations
• 12.2.1 Tectonic settings for glaciation
• 12.2.2 Ingredients for palaeoglaciological reconstruction
• 12.2.3 Landsystems and process–form models
• 12.2.4 Sequence stratigraphy
• 12.2.5 Stratigraphic architecture
• 12.2.6 Kineto-stratigraphy (tectono-stratigraphy)
• 12.3 Glacier, ice cap and ice field landsystems
• 12.3.1 Thermal regime process–form continuum
• 12.3.2 Active temperate glaciers
• 12.3.3 Polythermal glaciers
• 12.3.4 Polar-continental glaciers
• 12.3.5 Mountain glacier landsystems
• 12.3.6 GLOF-dominated glacial landsystem
• 12.3.7 Fjords
• 12.3.8 Surging glaciers
• 12.3.9 Climatic reconstruction from palaeoglaciers
• 12.4 Ice sheet beds
• 12.4.1 ‘Hard’ and ‘soft’ beds
• 12.4.2 Palaeo-ice streams
• 12.4.3 Cross-cutting palaeo-ice flow indicators and palaeo-ice sheet dynamics
• 12.4.4 Ice sheet beds as thermal regime palimpsests
• 12.4.5 Ice sheet drainage
• 12.4.6 Sediment dispersal patterns and till lithology
• 12.5 Ice sheet margins
• 12.5.1 Terrestrial ice sheet margins
• 12.5.2 Marine and lacustrine ice sheet margins
• 12.6 The Martian glacial landsystem: the final frontier
• Appendix List of Symbols Used In Equations
• References
• Index