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• Half Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Preface
• Brief Contents
• Contents
• PART ONE: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN LEARNING
• CHAPTER 1: LEARNING: DEFINITION, PRINCIPLES, AND THEORIES
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING
• DEFINING LEARNING
• DETERMINING WHEN LEARNING HAS OCCURRED
• TYPES OF LEARNING RESEARCH
• LEARNING PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES
• How Theories of Learning Have Evolved over Time
• Advantages of Theories
• Potential Drawbacks of Theories
• A Perspective on Theories and Principles
• APPLYING KNOWLEDGE ABOUT LEARNING TO INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES
• OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK
• SUMMARY
• CHAPTER 2: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND LEARNING
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Neurons
• Synapses
• Glial Cells
• BRAIN STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
• Methods in Brain Research
• Parts of the Brain
• The Left and Right Hemispheres
• Interconnectedness of Brain Structures
• DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN
• Prenatal Development
• Development in Infancy and Early Childhood
• Development in Middle Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood
• Factors Influencing Brain Development
• To What Extent Are There Critical or Sensitive Periods in Brain Development?
• To What Extent Is the Brain “Prewired” to Know or Learn Things?
• THE NEUROLOGICAL BASIS OF LEARNING
• EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF BRAIN RESEARCH
• SUMMARY
• PART TWO: BEHAVIORIST VIEWS OF LEARNING
• CHAPTER 3: BEHAVIORISM
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• BASIC ASSUMPTIONS IN BEHAVIORISM
• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Classical Conditioning in Human Learning
• Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning
• Eliminating Unproductive Classically Conditioned Responses
• OPERANT CONDITIONING
• Important Conditions for Operant Conditioning to Occur
• Contrasting Operant Conditioning with Classical Conditioning
• Forms That Reinforcement Might Take
• Common Phenomena in Operant Conditioning
• Effects of Antecedent Stimuli and Responses in Operant Conditioning
• Avoidance Learning
• PUNISHMENT
• Potentially Effective Forms of Punishment
• Ineffective Forms of Punishment
• COGNITION AND MOTIVATION IN BEHAVIORIST THEORIES
• SUMMARY
• CHAPTER 4: APPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORIST PRINCIPLES
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• APPLYING BEHAVIORIST PRINCIPLES TO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
• Creating a Productive Classroom Climate
• Concerns about Using Reinforcement and Punishment in Classroom Settings
• Using Reinforcement to Increase Productive Behaviors
• Strategies for Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors
• APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS (ABA)
• Frequently Used ABA Strategies
• Using ABA with Large Groups
• Adding a Cognitive Component to ABA
• IMPLICATIONS OF BEHAVIORISM FOR CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION AND ASSESSMENT
• Importance of Making Active Responses
• Identifying Instructional Goals and Objectives
• Programmed Instruction and Computer-Assisted Instruction
• Mastery Learning
• School Assessment Practices
• WHEN BEHAVIORIST APPROACHES ARE MOST USEFUL
• SUMMARY
• PART THREE: SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
• CHAPTER 5: SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
• Environmental Factors in Social Cognitive Theory: Revisiting Reinforcement and Punishment
• Cognitive Factors in Social Cognitive Theory
• Reciprocal Causation
• MODELING
• How Modeling Affects Behavior
• Characteristics of Effective Models
• Behaviors That Can Be Learned through Modeling
• Conditions Necessary for Effective Modeling to Occur
• SELF-EFFICACY
• How Self-Efficacy Affects Behavior and Cognition
• Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy
• SELF-REGULATION
• Elements of Self-Regulation
• Promoting Self-Regulated Behavior
• The Cognitive Side of Self-Regulation
• EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
• SUMMARY
• PART FOUR: COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING
• CHAPTER 6: COGNITIVISM
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• BASIC ASSUMPTIONS IN COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES
• EDWARD TOLMAN’S PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
• GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
• VERBAL LEARNING RESEARCH
• CONTEMPORARY COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES
• Information Processing Theory
• Constructivism
• Contextual Theories
• Integrating Cognitively Oriented Perspectives
• GENERAL EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVIST APPROACHES
• SUMMARY
• CHAPTER 7: MEMORY AND ITS COMPONENTS
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• A DUAL-STORE MODEL OF MEMORY
• Sensory Register
• Moving Information to Working Memory: The Role of Attention
• Working Memory
• Moving Information to Long-Term Memory: Connecting New Information with Prior Knowledge
• Long-Term Memory
• CHALLENGES TO THE DUAL-STORE MODEL
• Are Working Memory and Long-Term Memory Really Different?
• Is Conscious Thought Necessary for Long-Term Memory Storage?
• ALTERNATIVE VIEWS OF HUMAN MEMORY
• Levels of Processing
• Activation
• REMEMBERING THAT THE MAP IS NOT THE TERRITORY
• GENERALIZATIONS ABOUT MEMORY AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
• SUMMARY
• CHAPTER 8: LONG-TERM MEMORY STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL PROCESSES
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• STORAGE AS A CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS
• Examples of Construction in Action
• LONG-TERM MEMORY STORAGE PROCESSES
• Rehearsal
• Meaningful Learning
• Internal Organization
• Elaboration
• Visual Imagery
• How Procedural Knowledge Is Acquired
• FACTORS AFFECTING LONG-TERM MEMORY STORAGE
• Working Memory
• Prior Knowledge
• Prior Misconceptions
• Expectations
• Verbalization
• Enactment
• Repetition and Review
• LONG-TERM MEMORY RETRIEVAL PROCESSES
• Importance of Context for Retrieval
• Construction in Retrieval
• The Power of Suggestion: Effects of Subsequently Presented Information
• Constructing Entirely New “Memories” during Retrieval
• Remembering Prior Recollections
• FORGETTING
• Decay
• Interference and Inhibition
• Repression
• Failure to Retrieve
• Construction Error
• Insufficient Self-Monitoring during Retrieval
• Failure to Store or Consolidate
• PROMOTING EFFECTIVE LONG-TERM MEMORY STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL PROCESSES
• SUMMARY
• CHAPTER 9: KNOWLEDGE
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• THE VARIOUS KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE
• Declarative and Procedural Knowledge
• Explicit and Implicit Knowledge
• HOW KNOWLEDGE IS ENCODED IN LONG-TERM MEMORY
• Encoding in Terms of Physical Characteristics
• Encoding in Terms of Actions
• Encoding in Terms of Symbols
• Encoding in Terms of Meanings
• Different Forms of Encoding Are Not Mutually Exclusive
• THE ORGANIZATION OF LONG-TERM MEMORY
• Long-Term Memory as a Hierarchy
• Long-Term Memory as a Network
• Parallel Distributed Processing
• CONCEPTS
• Theories of Concept Learning
• Factors Facilitating Concept Learning
• SCHEMAS AND SCRIPTS
• PERSONAL THEORIES
• Personal Theories versus Reality
• Fostering Theory Development
• WORLDVIEWS
• THE CHALLENGE OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE
• Promoting Conceptual Change
• DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERTISE
• GENERALIZATIONS ABOUT THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE
• SUMMARY
• PART FIVE: DEVELOPMENTAL AND CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVES
• CHAPTER 10: COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• Key Ideas in Piaget’s Theory
• Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
• CURRENT PERSPECTIVES ON PIAGET’S THEORY
• Capabilities of Different Age-Groups
• Effects of Experience and Prior Knowledge
• Effects of Culture
• Views on Piaget’s Stages
• NEO-PIAGETIAN THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• Case’s Theory
• IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGETIAN AND NEO-PIAGETIAN THEORIES
• SUMMARY
• CHAPTER 11: SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY AND OTHER CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVES
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• VYGOTSKY’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• Key Ideas in Vygotsky’s Theory
• Comparing Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories
• CURRENT PERSPECTIVES ON VYGOTSKY’S THEORY
• Social Construction of Meaning
• Scaffolding
• Participation in Adult Activities
• Apprenticeships
• Acquisition of Teaching Skills
• Dynamic Assessment
• ADDING A SOCIOCULTURAL ELEMENT TO INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
• Intersubjectivity
• Social Construction of Memories
• Collaborative Use of Cognitive Strategies
• EXPANDING THE CONTEXTUALIST FRAMEWORK
• Embodiment
• Situated and Distributed Learning and Cognition
• Ecological Systems Theory
• GENERAL IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIOCULTURAL AND OTHER CONTEXTUALIST THEORIES
• PEER-INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
• Class Discussions
• Reciprocal Teaching
• Cooperative Learning
• Peer Tutoring
• Communities of Learners
• Technology-Based Collaborative Learning
• SUMMARY
• PART SIX: COMPLEX LEARNING AND COGNITION
• CHAPTER 12: LEARNING AND STUDYING EFFECTIVELY
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
• SELF-REGULATED LEARNING
• Roots of Self-Regulated Learning
• EFFECTIVE LEARNING AND STUDY STRATEGIES
• Meaningful Learning, Organization, and Elaboration
• Note Taking
• Identifying Important Information
• Summarizing
• Comprehension Monitoring
• Mnemonics
• DEVELOPMENT OF METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
• EPISTEMIC BELIEFS
• Developmental and Cultural Differences in Epistemic Beliefs
• Effects of Epistemic Beliefs
• THE INTENTIONAL LEARNER
• WHY STUDENTS DON’T ALWAYS USE EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES
• PROMOTING EFFECTIVE LEARNING AND STUDY STRATEGIES
• SUMMARY
• CHAPTER 13: TRANSFER, PROBLEM SOLVING, AND CRITICAL THINKING
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• TRANSFER
• Types of Transfer
• Theories of Transfer
• Factors Affecting Transfer
• PROBLEM SOLVING
• Theories of Problem Solving
• Cognitive Factors Affecting Successful Problem Solving
• Problem-Solving Strategies
• Meaningless versus Meaningful Problem Solving
• FACILITATING TRANSFER AND PROBLEM SOLVING IN INSTRUCTIONAL SETTINGS
• CRITICAL THINKING
• Developmental, Individual, and Cultural Differences in Critical Thinking
• Fostering Critical Thinking in the Classroom
• SUMMARY
• PART SEVEN: MOTIVATION
• CHAPTER 14: MOTIVATION, AFFECT, AND THEIR EFFECTS
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• GENERAL EFFECTS OF MOTIVATION
• Extrinsic versus Intrinsic Motivation
• BASIC HUMAN NEEDS
• Drive Reduction
• Arousal
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Competence and Self-Worth
• Autonomy
• Relatedness and Belonging
• INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN MOTIVATION
• Need for Approval
• Need for Achievement
• Sense of Identity
• Dispositions
• AFFECT AND ITS EFFECTS
• How Affect Is Related to Motivation
• How Affect Is Related to Cognition and Learning
• Anxiety
• CREATING A MOTIVATING AND AFFECT-FRIENDLY CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT
• SUMMARY
• CHAPTER 15: COGNITIVE FACTORS IN MOTIVATION
• LEARNING OUTCOMES
• INTERESTS
• Effects of Interest
• Factors Promoting Interest
• EXPECTANCIES AND VALUES
• Effects of Expectancies and Values
• Factors Influencing Expectancies and Values
• GOALS
• Achievement Goals
• Work-Avoidance and Doing-Just-Enough Goals
• Social Goals
• Career Goals
• Coordinating Multiple Goals
• ATTRIBUTIONS
• Effects of Attributions
• Factors Influencing the Nature of Attributions
• Explanatory Style: Mastery Orientation versus Learned Helplessness
• MOTIVATION, AFFECT, AND SELF-REGULATION
• How Motivation and Affect Are Intertwined with Self-Regulation
• Internalized Motivation
• ENCOURAGING MOTIVATING COGNITIONS
• A TARGETS Mnemonic for Motivational Strategies
• SUMMARY
• REFERENCES
• NAME INDEX
• SUBJECT INDEX