Efnisyfirlit

• Contents in Brief
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• About the Author
• Dedication
• Acknowledgments
• Contents
• UNIT 1 Basic Cell Processes: Integration and Coordination
• Chapter 1: Introduction to Physiology
• Physiology Is an Integrative Science
• RUNNING PROBLEM What to Believe?
• Emerging Concepts The Changing World of Omics
• Function and Mechanism
• Themes in Physiology
• Focus on . . . Mapping
• Theme 1: Structure and Function Are Closely Related
• Theme 2: Living Organisms Need Energy
• Theme 3: Information Flow Coordinates Body Functions
• Theme 4: Homeostasis Maintains Internal Stability
• Homeostasis
• What Is the Body’s Internal Environment?
• Homeostasis Depends on Mass Balance
• Excretion Clears Substances from the Body
• Homeostasis Does Not Mean Equilibrium
• Control Systems and Homeostasis
• Local Control Is Restricted to a Tissue
• Reflex Control Uses Long‐Distance Signaling
• Response Loops Begin with a Stimulus
• Feedback Loops Modulate the Response Loop
• Negative Feedback Loops Are Homeostatic
• Positive Feedback Loops Are Not Homeostatic
• Feedforward Control Allows the Body to Anticipate Change
• Biological Rhythms Result from Changes in a Setpoint
• The Science of Physiology
• Good Scientific Experiments Must Be Carefully Designed
• Focus on . . . Graphing
• The Results of Human Experiments Can Be Difficult to Interpret
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 2: Molecular Interactions
• RUNNING PROBLEM Chromium Supplements
• Molecules and Bonds
• Most Biomolecules Contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
• Electrons Have Four Important Biological Roles
• Covalent Bonds between Atoms Create Molecules
• Noncovalent Bonds Facilitate Reversible Interactions
• Noncovalent Interactions
• Hydrophilic Interactions Create Biological Solutions
• Molecular Shape Is Related to Molecular Function
• Hydrogen Ions in Solution Can Alter Molecular Shape
• Protein Interactions
• Proteins Are Selective about the Molecules They Bind
• Protein‐Binding Reactions Are Reversible
• Binding Reactions Obey the Law of Mass Action
• The Dissociation Constant Indicates Affinity
• Multiple Factors Alter Protein Binding
• The Body Regulates the Amount of Protein in Cells
• Reaction Rate Can Reach a Maximum
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 3: Compartmentation: Cells and Tissues
• RUNNING PROBLEM Pap Tests Save Lives
• Functional Compartments of the Body
• The Lumens of Some Organs Are Outside the Body
• Functionally, the Body Has Three Fluid Compartments
• Biological Membranes
• The Cell Membrane Separates Cell from Environment
• Membranes Are Mostly Lipid and Protein
• Membrane Lipids Create a Hydrophobic Barrier
• Membrane Proteins May Be Loosely or Tightly Bound to the Membrane
• Membrane Carbohydrates Attach to Both Lipids and Proteins
• Intracellular Compartments
• Cells Are Divided into Compartments
• The Cytoplasm Includes Cytosol, Inclusions, Fibers, and Organelles
• Inclusions Are in Direct Contact with the Cytosol
• Cytoplasmic Protein Fibers Come in Three Sizes
• Microtubules Form Centrioles, Cilia, and Flagella
• Emerging Concepts Single Cilia Are Sensors
• The Cytoskeleton Is a Changeable Scaffold
• Motor Proteins Create Movement
• Organelles Create Compartments for Specialized Functions
• The Nucleus Is the Cell’s Control Center
• Tissues of the Body
• Extracellular Matrix Has Many Functions
• Cell Junctions Hold Cells Together to Form Tissues
• Epithelia Provide Protection and Regulate Exchange
• Connective Tissues Provide Support and Barriers
• Muscle and Neural Tissues Are Excitable
• Tissue Remodeling
• Apoptosis Is a Tidy Form of Cell Death
• Stem Cells Can Create New Specialized Cells
• Emerging Concepts Induced Pluripotent Stems Cells
• Focus on . . . The Skin
• Organs
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 4: Energy and Cellular Metabolism
• RUNNING PROBLEM Tay‐Sachs Disease: A Deadly Inheritance
• Energy in Biological Systems
• Energy Is Used to Perform Work
• Energy Comes in Two Forms: Kinetic and Potential
• Energy Can Be Converted from One Form to Another
• Thermodynamics Is the Study of Energy Use
• Chemical Reactions
• Energy Is Transferred between Molecules during Reactions
• Activation Energy Gets Reactions Started
• Energy Is Trapped or Released during Reactions
• Net Free Energy Change Determines Reaction Reversibility
• Enzymes
• Enzymes Are Proteins
• Reaction Rates Are Variable
• Enzymes May Be Activated, Inactivated, or Modulated
• Enzymes Lower Activation Energy of Reactions
• Enzymatic Reactions Can Be Categorized
• Metabolism
• Cells Regulate Their Metabolic Pathways
• Catabolic Pathways Produce ATP
• One Glucose Molecule Can Yield 30–32 ATP
• Anaerobic Metabolism Makes Two ATP
• Proteins Are the Key to Cell Function
• DNA Guides the Synthesis of RNA
• Alternative Splicing Creates Multiple Proteins from One DNA Sequence
• mRNA Translation Links Amino Acids
• Emerging Concepts Purple Petunias and RNAi
• Protein Sorting Directs Proteins to Their Destination
• Proteins Undergo Posttranslational Modification
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 5: Membrane Dynamics
• RUNNING PROBLEM Cystic Fibrosis
• Homeostasis Does Not Mean Equilibrium
• Osmosis and Tonicity
• The Body Is Mostly Water
• The Body Is in Osmotic Equilibrium
• Osmolarity Describes the Number of Particles in Solution
• Tonicity Describes the Volume Change of a Cell
• Transport Processes
• Cell Membranes Are Selectively Permeable
• Diffusion
• Lipophilic Molecules Cross Membranes by Simple Diffusion
• Protein‐Mediated Transport
• Membrane Proteins Have Four Major Functions
• Channel Proteins Form Open, Water‐Filled Passageways
• Carrier Proteins Change Conformation to Move Molecules
• Facilitated Diffusion Uses Carrier Proteins
• Active Transport Moves Substances against Their ‐Concentration Gradients
• Carrier‐Mediated Transport Exhibits Specificity, Competition, and Saturation
• Vesicular Transport
• Phagocytosis Creates Vesicles Using the Cytoskeleton
• Endocytosis Creates Smaller Vesicles
• CLINICAL FOCUS LDL: The Lethal Lipoprotein
• Exocytosis Releases Molecules Too Large for Transport Proteins
• Epithelial Transport
• Epithelial Transport May Be Paracellular or Transcellular
• Transcellular Transport of Glucose Uses Membrane Proteins
• Transcytosis Uses Vesicles to Cross an Epithelium
• The Resting Membrane Potential
• Electricity Review
• The Cell Membrane Enables Separation of Electrical Charge in the Body
• All Living Cells Have a Membrane Potential
• The Resting Membrane Potential Is Due Mostly to Potassium
• Changes in Ion Permeability Change the Membrane Potential
• Integrated Membrane Processes: Insulin Secretion
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 6: Communication, Integration, and Homeostasis
• Cell‐to‐Cell Communication
• RUNNING PROBLEM Diabetes Mellitus: A Growing Epidemic
• Gap Junctions Create Cytoplasmic Bridges
• Contact‐Dependent Signals Require Cell‐to‐Cell Contact
• Local Communication Uses Paracrine and Autocrine Signals
• Long‐Distance Communication May Be Electrical or Chemical
• Cytokines May Act as Both Local and Long‐Distance Signals
• Signal Pathways
• Receptor Proteins Are Located Inside the Cell or on the Cell Membrane
• Membrane Proteins Facilitate Signal Transduction
• The Most Rapid Signal Pathways Change Ion Flow through Channels
• Most Signal Transduction Uses G Proteins
• Many Lipophobic Hormones Use GPCR‐cAMP Pathways
• G Protein‐Coupled Receptors Also Use Lipid‐Derived Second Messengers
• Catalytic Receptors Have Enzyme Activity
• Integrin Receptors Transfer Information from the Extracellular Matrix
• Novel Signal Molecules
• Calcium Is an Important Intracellular Signal
• Gases Are Ephemeral Signal Molecules
• BIOTECHNOLOGY Calcium Signals Glow in the Dark
• CLINICAL FOCUS From Dynamite to Medicine
• Some Lipids Are Important Paracrine Signals
• Modulation of Signal Pathways
• Receptors Exhibit Saturation, Specificity, and Competition
• One Ligand May Have Multiple Receptors
• Up and Down‐Regulation Enable Cells to Modulate Responses
• Cells Must Be Able to Terminate Signal Pathways
• Many Diseases and Drugs Target the Proteins of Signal Transduction
• Homeostatic Reflex Pathways
• Cannon’s Postulates Describe Regulated Variables and ‐Control Systems
• Long‐Distance Pathways Maintain Homeostasis
• Control Systems Vary in Their Speed and Specificity
• Complex Reflex Control Pathways Have Several Integrating Centers
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• UNIT 2 Homeostasis and Control
• Chapter 7: Introduction to the Endocrine System
• Hormones
• RUNNING PROBLEM Graves’ Disease
• Hormones Have Been Known Since Ancient Times
• CLINICAL FOCUS Diabetes: The Discovery of Insulin
• What Makes a Chemical a Hormone?
• Hormones Act by Binding to Receptors
• Hormone Action Must Be Terminated
• The Classification of Hormones
• Most Hormones Are Peptides or Proteins
• Steroid Hormones Are Derived from Cholesterol
• Some Hormones Are Derived from Single Amino Acids
• Control of Hormone Release
• The Endocrine Cell Is the Sensor in Simple Endocrine Reflexes
• Many Endocrine Reflexes Involve the Nervous System
• Neurohormones Are Secreted into the Blood by Neurons
• The Pituitary Gland Is Actually Two Fused Glands
• The Posterior Pituitary Stores and Releases Two Neurohormones
• The Anterior Pituitary Secretes Six Hormones
• A Portal System Connects the Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary
• Anterior Pituitary Hormones Control Growth, Metabolism, and Reproduction
• Feedback Loops Are Different in the Hypothalamic‐Pituitary Pathway
• Hormone Interactions
• In Synergism, the Effect of Interacting Hormones Is More than Additive
• A Permissive Hormone Allows Another Hormone to Exert Its Full Effect
• Antagonistic Hormones Have Opposing Effects
• Endocrine Pathologies
• Hypersecretion Exaggerates a Hormone’s Effects
• Hyposecretion Diminishes or Eliminates a Hormone’s Effects
• Receptor or Second Messenger Problems Cause Abnormal Tissue Responsiveness
• Diagnosis of Endocrine Pathologies Depends on the ‐Complexity of the Reflex
• Hormone Evolution
• Focus on . . . The Pineal Gland
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 8: Neurons: Cellular and Network Properties
• RUNNING PROBLEM Mysterious Paralysis
• Organization of the Nervous System
• Cells of the Nervous System
• Neurons Carry Electrical Signals
• Establishing Synapses Depends on Chemical Signals
• Glial Cells Provide Support for Neurons
• Can Stem Cells Repair Damaged Neurons?
• Electrical Signals in Neurons
• The Nernst Equation Predicts Membrane Potential for a Single Ion
• The GHK Equation Predicts Membrane Potential Using ‐Multiple Ions
• Ion Movement Creates Electrical Signals
• Gated Channels Control the Ion Permeability of the Neuron
• CLINICAL FOCUS Mutant Channels
• Current Flow Obeys Ohm’s Law
• Graded Potentials Reflect Stimulus Strength
• Action Potentials Travel Long Distances
• Na+ and K+ Move across the Membrane during Action Potentials
• One Action Potential Does Not Alter Ion Concentration Gradients
• Axonal Na+ Channels Have Two Gates
• Action Potentials Will Not Fire during the Absolute Refractory Period
• Action Potentials Are Conducted
• Larger Neurons Conduct Action Potentials Faster
• Conduction Is Faster in Myelinated Axons
• Chemical Factors Alter Electrical Activity
• BIOTECHNOLOGY The Body’s Wiring
• Cell‐To‐Cell Communication in the Nervous System
• Neurons Communicate at Synapses
• Neurons Secrete Chemical Signals
• Neurotransmitters Are Highly Varied
• CLINICAL FOCUS Myasthenia Gravis
• BIOTECHNOLOGY Of Snakes, Snails, Spiders, and Sushi
• Neurotransmitters Are Released from Vesicles
• Stronger Stimuli Release More Neurotransmitter
• Integration of Neural Information Transfer
• Postsynaptic Responses May Be Slow or Fast
• Pathways Integrate Information from Multiple Neurons
• Synaptic Activity Can Be Modified
• Long‐Term Potentiation Alters Synapses
• Disorders of Synaptic Transmission Are Responsible for Many Diseases
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 9: The Central Nervous System
• Emergent Properties of Neural Networks
• RUNNING PROBLEM Infantile Spasms
• Evolution of Nervous Systems
• Anatomy of the Central Nervous System
• The CNS Develops from a Hollow Tube
• The CNS Is Divided into Gray Matter and White Matter
• Bone and Connective Tissue Support the CNS
• The Brain Floats in Cerebrospinal Fluid
• The Blood‐Brain Barrier Protects the Brain
• Neural Tissue Has Special Metabolic Requirements
• CLINICAL FOCUS Diabetes: Hypoglycemia and the Brain
• The Spinal Cord
• The Brain
• The Brain Stem Is the Oldest Part of the Brain
• The Cerebellum Coordinates Movement
• The Diencephalon Contains the Centers for Homeostasis
• The Cerebrum Is the Site of Higher Brain Functions
• Brain Function
• The Cerebral Cortex Is Organized into Functional Areas
• The Spinal Cord and Brain Integrate Sensory Information
• Sensory Information Is Processed into Perception
• The Motor System Governs Output from the CNS
• The Behavioral State System Modulates Motor Output
• Why Do We Sleep?
• Emerging Concepts Brain Glymphatics
• Physiological Functions Exhibit Circadian Rhythms
• Emotion and Motivation Involve Complex Neural Pathways
• Moods Are Long‐Lasting Emotional States
• Learning and Memory Change Synaptic Connections in the Brain
• Learning Is the Acquisition of Knowledge
• Memory Is the Ability to Retain and Recall Information
• Language Is the Most Elaborate Cognitive Behavior
• Personality Is a Combination of Experience and Inheritance
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 10: Sensory Physiology
• RUNNING PROBLEM MÉniÈre’s Disease
• General Properties of Sensory Systems
• Receptors Are Sensitive to Particular Forms of Energy
• Sensory Transduction Converts Stimuli into Graded Potentials
• A Sensory Neuron Has a Receptive Field
• The CNS Integrates Sensory Information
• Coding and Processing Distinguish Stimulus Properties
• Somatic Senses
• Pathways for Somatic Perception Project to the Cortex and Cerebellum
• Touch Receptors Respond to Many Different Stimuli
• Skin Temperature Receptors Are Free Nerve Endings
• Nociceptors Initiate Protective Responses
• CLINICAL FOCUS Natural Painkillers
• Chemoreception: Smell and Taste
• Olfaction Is One of the Oldest Senses
• Taste Is a Combination of Five Basic Sensations
• Taste Transduction Uses Receptors and Channels
• The Ear: Hearing
• Hearing Is Our Perception of Sound
• Sound Transduction Is a Multistep Process
• The Cochlea Is Filled with Fluid
• Sounds Are Processed First in the Cochlea
• Auditory Pathways Project to the Auditory Cortex
• Hearing Loss May Result from Mechanical or Neural Damage
• The Ear: Equilibrium
• The Vestibular Apparatus Provides Information about ‐Movement and Position
• The Semicircular Canals Sense Rotational Acceleration
• The Otolith Organs Sense Linear Acceleration and Head Position
• Equilibrium Pathways Project Primarily to the Cerebellum
• The Eye and Vision
• The Skull Protects the Eye
• Light Enters the Eye through the Cornea
• The Lens Focuses Light on the Retina
• Phototransduction Occurs at the Retina
• Emerging Concepts Melanopsin
• Photoreceptors Transduce Light into Electrical Signals
• Signal Processing Begins in the Retina
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 11: Efferent Division: Autonomic and Somatic Motor Control
• RUNNING PROBLEM A Powerful Addiction
• The Autonomic Division
• Autonomic Reflexes Are Important for Homeostasis
• Antagonistic Control Is a Hallmark of the Autonomic Division
• Autonomic Pathways Have Two Efferent Neurons in Series
• Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches Originate in Different Regions
• The Autonomic Nervous System Uses a Variety of Chemical Signals
• Autonomic Pathways Control Smooth and Cardiac Muscle and Glands
• Autonomic Neurotransmitters Are Synthesized in the Axon
• Autonomic Receptors Have Multiple Subtypes
• The Adrenal Medulla Secretes Catecholamines
• Autonomic Agonists and Antagonists Are Important Tools in Research and Medicine
• Primary Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System Are Relatively Uncommon
• CLINICAL FOCUS Diabetes: Autonomic Neuropathy
• Summary of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Branches
• The Somatic Motor Division
• A Somatic Motor Pathway Consists of One Neuron
• The Neuromuscular Junction Contains Nicotinic Receptors
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 12: Muscles
• RUNNING PROBLEM Periodic Paralysis
• Skeletal Muscle
• Skeletal Muscles Are Composed of Muscle Fibers
• Myofibrils Are Muscle Fiber Contractile Structures
• Muscle Contraction Creates Force
• Actin and Myosin Slide Past Each Other during Contraction
• Myosin Crossbridges Move Actin Filaments
• Calcium Signals Initiate Contraction
• Myosin Heads Step along Actin Filaments
• Acetylcholine Initiates Excitation‐Contraction Coupling
• BIOTECHNOLOGY Watching Myosin Work
• Skeletal Muscle Contraction Requires a Steady Supply of ATP
• Fatigue Has Multiple Causes
• Skeletal Muscle Is Classified by Speed and Fatigue Resistance
• Resting Fiber Length Affects Tension
• Force of Contraction Increases with Summation
• A Motor Unit Is One Motor Neuron and Its Muscle Fibers
• Contraction Force Depends on the Types and Numbers of Motor Units
• Mechanics of Body Movement
• Isotonic Contractions Move Loads; Isometric Contractions Create Force without Movement
• Bones and Muscles around Joints Form Levers and Fulcrums
• Muscle Disorders Have Multiple Causes
• Smooth Muscle
• Smooth Muscle Is More Variable Than Skeletal Muscle
• Smooth Muscle Lacks Sarcomeres
• Myosin Phosphorylation Controls Contraction
• MLCP Controls Ca2+ Sensitivity
• Calcium Initiates Smooth Muscle Contraction
• Some Smooth Muscles Have Unstable Membrane Potentials
• Chemical Signals Influence Smooth Muscle Activity
• Cardiac Muscle
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 13: Integrative Physiology I: Control of Body Movement
• Neural Reflexes
• Neural Reflex Pathways Can Be Classified in Different Ways
• RUNNING PROBLEM: Tetanus
• Autonomic Reflexes
• Skeletal Muscle Reflexes
• Golgi Tendon Organs Respond to Muscle Tension
• Muscle Spindles Respond to Muscle Stretch
• Stretch Reflexes and Reciprocal Inhibition Control Movement around a Joint
• Flexion Reflexes Pull Limbs Away from Painful Stimuli
• The Integrated Control of Body Movement
• Movement Can Be Classified as Reflex, Voluntary, or Rhythmic
• The CNS Integrates Movement
• Control of Movement in Visceral Muscles
• Emerging Concepts Visualization Techniques in Sports
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• UNIT 3 Integration of Function
• Chapter 14: Cardiovascular Physiology
• RUNNING PROBLEM Myocardial Infarction
• Overview of the Cardiovascular System
• The Cardiovascular System Transports Materials throughout the Body
• The Cardiovascular System Consists of the Heart, Blood ‐Vessels, and Blood
• Pressure, Volume, Flow, and Resistance
• The Pressure of Fluid in Motion Decreases over Distance
• Pressure Changes in Liquids without a Change in Volume
• Blood Flows from Higher Pressure to Lower Pressure
• Resistance Opposes Flow
• Velocity Depends on the Flow Rate and the Cross‐Sectional Area
• Cardiac Muscle and the Heart
• The Heart Has Four Chambers
• Heart Valves Ensure One‐Way Flow in the Heart
• The Coronary Circulation Supplies Blood to the Heart
• Cardiac Muscle Cells Contract without Innervation
• Calcium Entry Is a Feature of Cardiac EC Coupling
• Cardiac Muscle Contraction Can Be Graded
• Myocardial Action Potentials Vary
• The Heart as a Pump
• Electrical Signals Coordinate Contraction
• Pacemakers Set the Heart Rate
• CLINICAL FOCUS Fibrillation
• The Electrocardiogram Reflects Electrical Activity
• The Heart Contracts and Relaxes during a Cardiac Cycle
• CLINICAL FOCUS Gallops, Clicks, and Murmurs
• Pressure‐Volume Curves Represent One Cardiac Cycle
• Stroke Volume Is the Volume of Blood Pumped per Contraction
• Cardiac Output Is a Measure of Cardiac Performance
• The Autonomic Division Modulates Heart Rate
• Multiple Factors Influence Stroke Volume
• Contractility Is Controlled by the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
• Emerging Concepts Stem Cells for Heart Disease
• EDV and Arterial Blood Pressure Determine Afterload
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 15: Blood Flow and the Control of Blood Pressure
• RUNNING PROBLEM Essential Hypertension
• The Blood Vessels
• Blood Vessels Contain Vascular Smooth Muscle
• Arteries and Arterioles Carry Blood Away from the Heart
• Exchange Takes Place in the Capillaries
• Blood Flow Converges in the Venules and Veins
• Angiogenesis Creates New Blood Vessels
• Blood Pressure
• Blood Pressure Is Highest in Arteries and Lowest in Veins
• Arterial Blood Pressure Reflects the Driving Pressure for Blood Flow
• Blood Pressure Is Estimated by Sphygmomanometry
• Cardiac Output and Peripheral Resistance Determine Mean Arterial Pressure
• Changes in Blood Volume Affect Blood Pressure
• CLINICAL FOCUS SHOCK
• Resistance in the Arterioles
• Myogenic Autoregulation Adjusts Blood Flow
• Paracrine Signals Influence Vascular Smooth Muscle
• The Sympathetic Branch Controls Most Vascular Smooth Muscle
• Distribution of Blood to the Tissues
• Cerebral Blood Flow Stays Nearly Constant
• Coronary Blood Flow Parallels the Work of the Heart
• Regulation of Cardiovascular Function
• The Baroreceptor Reflex Controls Blood Pressure
• Orthostatic Hypotension Triggers the Baroreceptor Reflex
• Other Systems Influence Cardiovascular Function
• Exchange at the Capillaries
• Velocity of Blood Flow Is Lowest in the Capillaries
• Most Capillary Exchange Takes Place by Diffusion and Transcytosis
• Capillary Filtration and Absorption Take Place by Bulk Flow
• The Lymphatic System
• Edema Results from Alterations in Capillary Exchange
• Cardiovascular Disease
• Risk Factors for CVD Include Smoking and Obesity
• CLINICAL FOCUS Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease
• Atherosclerosis Is an Inflammatory Process
• Hypertension Represents a Failure of Homeostasis
• Emerging Concepts Inflammatory Markers for Cardiovascular Disease
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 16: Blood
• RUNNING PROBLEM Blood Doping in Athletes
• Plasma and the Cellular Elements of Blood
• Plasma Is Extracellular Matrix
• Cellular Elements Include RBCs, WBCs, and Platelets
• Blood Cell Production
• Blood Cells Are Produced in the Bone Marrow
• Hematopoiesis Is Controlled by Cytokines
• Colony‐Stimulating Factors Regulate Leukopoiesis
• Thrombopoietin Regulates Platelet Production
• Erythropoietin Regulates RBC Production
• Red Blood Cells
• Mature RBCs Lack a Nucleus
• Hemoglobin Synthesis Requires Iron
• RBCs Live about Four Months
• Focus on . . . Bone Marrow
• RBC Disorders Decrease Oxygen Transport
• CLINICAL FOCUS Diabetes: Hemoglobin and Hyperglycemia
• Platelets
• Hemostasis and Coagulation
• Hemostasis Prevents Blood Loss from Damaged Vessels
• Platelet Activation Begins the Clotting Process
• Coagulation Converts a Platelet Plug into a Clot
• Anticoagulants Prevent Coagulation
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 17: Mechanics of Breathing
• RUNNING PROBLEM Emphysema
• The Respiratory System
• Bones and Muscles of the Thorax Surround the Lungs
• Pleural Sacs Enclose the Lungs
• Airways Connect Lungs to the External Environment
• The Airways Warm, Humidify, and Filter Inspired Air
• CLINICAL FOCUS Congestive Heart Failure
• Alveoli Are the Site of Gas Exchange
• Pulmonary Circulation Is High‐Flow, Low‐Pressure
• Gas Laws
• Air Is a Mixture of Gases
• Gases Move Down Pressure Gradients
• Boyle’s Law Describes Pressure‐Volume Relationships
• Ventilation
• Lung Volumes Change during Ventilation
• During Ventilation, Air Flows because of Pressure Gradients
• Inspiration Occurs When Alveolar Pressure Decreases
• Expiration Occurs When Alveolar Pressure Increases
• Intrapleural Pressure Changes during Ventilation
• Lung Compliance and Elastance May Change in Disease States
• Surfactant Decreases the Work of Breathing
• Airway Diameter Determines Airway Resistance
• Rate and Depth of Breathing Determine the Efficiency of Breathing
• Alveolar Gas Composition Varies Little during Normal Breathing
• Ventilation and Alveolar Blood Flow Are Matched
• Auscultation and Spirometry Assess Pulmonary Function
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 18: Gas Exchange and Transport
• RUNNING PROBLEM High Altitude
• Gas Exchange in the Lungs and Tissues
• Lower Alveolar Po2 Decreases Oxygen Uptake
• Diffusion Problems Cause Hypoxia
• BIOTECHNOLOGY The Pulse Oximeter
• Gas Solubility Affects Diffusion
• Gas Transport in the Blood
• Hemoglobin Binds to Oxygen
• Oxygen Binding Obeys the Law of Mass Action
• Hemoglobin Transports Most Oxygen to the Tissues
• Po2 Determines Oxygen‐Hb Binding
• Emerging Concepts Blood Substitutes
• Oxygen Binding Is Expressed as a Percentage
• Several Factors Affect O2‐Hb Binding
• Carbon Dioxide Is Transported in Three Ways
• Regulation of Ventilation
• Neurons in the Medulla Control Breathing
• CO2, Oxygen, and pH Influence Ventilation
• Protective Reflexes Guard the Lungs
• Higher Brain Centers Affect Patterns of Ventilation
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 19: The Kidneys
• Functions of the Kidneys
• RUNNING PROBLEM Gout
• Anatomy of the Urinary System
• The Urinary System Consists of Kidneys, Ureters, Bladder, and Urethra
• The Nephron Is the Functional Unit of the Kidney
• Overview of Kidney Function
• Kidneys Filter, Reabsorb, and Secrete
• The Nephron Modifies Fluid Volume and Osmolarity
• Filtration
• The Renal Corpuscle Contains Filtration Barriers
• Emerging Concepts Diabetes: Diabetic Nephropathy
• Capillary Pressure Causes Filtration
• GFR Is Relatively Constant
• GFR Is Subject to Autoregulation
• Hormones and Autonomic Neurons Also Influence GFR
• Reabsorption
• Reabsorption May Be Active or Passive
• Renal Transport Can Reach Saturation
• BIOTECHNOLOGY Artificial Kidneys
• Peritubular Capillary Pressures Favor Reabsorption
• Secretion
• Competition Decreases Penicillin Secretion
• Excretion
• Clearance Is a Noninvasive Way to Measure GFR
• Clearance Helps Us Determine Renal Handling
• Micturition
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 20: Integrative Physiology II: Fluid and Electrolyte Balance
• Fluid and Electrolyte Homeostasis
• ECF Osmolarity Affects Cell Volume
• Multiple Systems Integrate Fluid and Electrolyte Balance
• RUNNING PROBLEM Hyponatremia
• Water Balance
• Daily Water Intake and Excretion Are Balanced
• The Kidneys Conserve Water
• The Renal Medulla Creates Concentrated Urine
• CLINICAL FOCUS Diabetes: Osmotic Diuresis
• Vasopressin Controls Water Reabsorption
• Blood Volume and Osmolarity Activate Osmoreceptors
• The Loop of Henle Is a Countercurrent Multiplier
• Sodium Balance and ECF Volume
• Aldosterone Controls Sodium Balance
• Low Blood Pressure Stimulates Aldosterone Secretion
• ANG II Has Many Effects
• Natriuretic Peptides Promote Na+ and Water Excretion
• Potassium Balance
• Behavioral Mechanisms in Salt and Water Balance
• Drinking Replaces Fluid Loss
• Low Na+ Stimulates Salt Appetite
• Avoidance Behaviors Help Prevent Dehydration
• Integrated Control of Volume, Osmolarity, and Blood Pressure
• Osmolarity and Volume Can Change Independently
• Dehydration Triggers Homeostatic Responses
• Kidneys Assist in Blood Pressure Homeostasis
• Endocrine Problems Disrupt Fluid Balance
• Acid‐Base Balance
• pH Changes Can Denature Proteins
• Acids and Bases in the Body Come from Many Sources
• pH Homeostasis Depends on Buffers, Lungs, and Kidneys
• Buffer Systems Include Proteins, Phosphate Ions, and HCO3
• Ventilation Can Compensate for pH Disturbances
• Kidneys Use Ammonia and Phosphate Buffers
• The Proximal Tubule Secretes H+ and Reabsorbs HCO3
• The Distal Nephron Controls Acid Excretion
• Acid‐Base Disturbances May Be Respiratory or Metabolic
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• UNIT 4 Metabolism, Growth, and Aging
• Chapter 21: The Digestive System
• RUNNING PROBLEM Cholera in India
• Anatomy of the Digestive System
• The Digestive System Is a Tube
• The GI Tract Wall Has Four Layers
• Digestive Function and Processes
• We Secrete More Fluid than We Ingest
• Digestion and Absorption Make Food Usable
• Motility: GI Smooth Muscle Contracts Spontaneously
• GI Smooth Muscle Exhibits Different Patterns of Contraction
• CLINICAL FOCUS Diabetes: Delayed Gastric Emptying
• Regulation of GI Function
• The Enteric Nervous System Can Act Independently
• GI Peptides Include Hormones, Neuropeptides, and Cytokines
• Integrated Function: The Cephalic Phase
• Chemical and Mechanical Digestion Begins in the Mouth
• Saliva Is an Exocrine Secretion
• Swallowing Moves Food from Mouth to Stomach
• Integrated Function: The Gastric Phase
• The Stomach Stores Food
• Gastric Secretions Protect and Digest
• The Stomach Balances Digestion and Defense
• Integrated Function: The Intestinal Phase
• Intestinal Secretions Promote Digestion
• The Pancreas Secretes Enzymes and Bicarbonate
• The Liver Secretes Bile
• Most Digestion Occurs in the Small Intestine
• Focus on . . . The Liver
• Bile Salts Facilitate Fat Digestion
• Carbohydrates Are Absorbed as Monosaccharides
• Proteins Are Digested into Small Peptides and Amino Acids
• Some Larger Peptides Can Be Absorbed Intact
• Nucleic Acids Are Digested into Bases and Monosaccharides
• The Intestine Absorbs Vitamins and Minerals
• The Intestine Absorbs Ions and Water
• Regulation of the Intestinal Phase
• The Large Intestine Concentrates Waste
• Diarrhea Can Cause Dehydration
• EMERGING CONCEPTS The Human Microbiome Project
• Immune Functions of the GI Tract
• M Cells Sample Gut Contents
• Vomiting Is a Protective Reflex
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 22: Metabolism and Energy Balance
• Appetite and Satiety
• RUNNING PROBLEM Eating Disorders
• BIOTECHNOLOGY Discovering Peptides: Research in Reverse
• Energy Balance
• Energy Input Equals Energy Output
• Oxygen Consumption Reflects Energy Use
• CLINICAL FOCUS Estimating Fat–The Body Mass Index
• Many Factors Influence Metabolic Rate
• Energy Is Stored in Fat and Glycogen
• Metabolism
• Ingested Energy May Be Used or Stored
• Enzymes Control the Direction of Metabolism
• Fed‐State Metabolism
• Carbohydrates Make ATP
• Amino Acids Make Proteins
• Fats Store Energy
• CLINICAL FOCUS Antioxidants Protect the Body
• Plasma Cholesterol Predicts Heart Disease
• Fasted‐State Metabolism
• Glycogen Converts to Glucose
• Proteins Can Be Used to Make ATP
• Lipids Store More Energy than Glucose or Protein
• Homeostatic Control of Metabolism
• The Pancreas Secretes Insulin and Glucagon
• The Insulin‐to‐Glucagon Ratio Regulates Metabolism
• Insulin Is the Dominant Hormone of the Fed State
• Insulin Promotes Anabolism
• Glucagon Is Dominant in the Fasted State
• Diabetes Mellitus Is a Family of Diseases
• Type 1 Diabetics Are Prone to Ketoacidosis
• Type 2 Diabetics Often Have Elevated Insulin Levels
• Metabolic Syndrome Links Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease
• Multiple Hormones Influence Metabolism
• Regulation of Body Temperature
• Body Temperature Balances Heat Production, Gain, and Loss
• Body Temperature Is Homeostatically Regulated
• Movement and Metabolism Produce Heat
• The Body’s Thermostat Can Be Reset
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 23: Endocrine Control of Growth and Metabolism
• Review of Endocrine Principles
• RUNNING PROBLEM Hyperparathyroidism
• Adrenal Glucocorticoids
• The Adrenal Cortex Secretes Steroid Hormones
• Cortisol Secretion Is Controlled by ACTH
• Cortisol Is Essential for Life
• Cortisol Is a Useful Therapeutic Drug
• Cortisol Pathologies Result from Too Much or Too Little Hormone
• CRH and ACTH Have Additional Physiological Functions
• Thyroid Hormones
• Thyroid Hormones Contain Iodine
• TSH Controls the Thyroid Gland
• Thyroid Pathologies Affect Quality of Life
• Growth Hormone
• Growth Hormone Is Anabolic
• Growth Hormone Is Essential for Normal Growth
• Genetically Engineered hGH Raises Ethical Questions
• Tissue and Bone Growth
• Tissue Growth Requires Hormones and Paracrine Factors
• Bone Growth Requires Adequate Dietary Calcium
• CLINICAL FOCUS New Growth Charts
• Calcium Balance
• Plasma Calcium Is Closely Regulated
• Three Hormones Control Calcium Balance
• Multiple Factors Control Bone Remodeling
• Calcium and Phosphate Homeostasis Are Linked
• Osteoporosis Is a Disease of Bone Loss
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 24: The Immune System
• Overview
• RUNNING PROBLEM HPV: To Vaccinate or Not?
• Anatomy of the Immune System
• Lymphoid Tissues Are Everywhere
• Leukocytes Are the Immune Cells
• Development of Immune Cells
• Focus on . . . The Thymus Gland
• Lymphocytes Mediate the Adaptive Immune Response
• The Immune System Must Recognize “Self”
• Early Pathogen Exposure Strengthens Immunity
• Molecules of the Innate Immune Response
• Many Molecules of the Innate Immune Response Are Always Present
• Antigen Presentation and Recognition Molecules
• Major Histocompatibility Complexes, MHC
• Antigen‐Recognition Molecules
• B Lymphocytes Produce Antibodies
• Pathogens of the Human Body
• Bacteria and Viruses Require Different Defense Mechanisms
• Viruses Can Only Replicate inside Host Cells
• The Immune Response
• Barriers Are the Body’s First Line of Defense
• Innate Immunity Provides Nonspecific Responses
• Antigen‐Presenting Cells Bridge Innate and Adaptive Responses
• Adaptive Immunity Creates Antigen‐Specific Responses
• Antibody Functions
• Integrated Immune Responses
• Bacterial Invasion Causes Inflammation
• Viral Infections Require Intracellular Defense
• Specific Antigens Trigger Allergic Responses
• MHC Proteins Allow Recognition of Foreign Tissue
• Immune System Pathologies
• Autoimmune Disease Results from Antibodies against Self‐Antigen
• Immune Surveillance Removes Abnormal Cells
• Neuro‐Endocrine‐Immune Interactions
• Stress Alters Immune System Function
• Modern Medicine Includes Mind‐Body Therapeutics
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 25: Integrative Physiology III: Exercise
• RUNNING PROBLEM Malignant Hyperthermia
• Metabolism and Exercise
• Hormones Regulate Metabolism during Exercise
• Oxygen Consumption Is Related to Exercise Intensity
• Several Factors Limit Exercise
• Ventilatory Responses to Exercise
• Cardiovascular Responses to Exercise
• Cardiac Output Increases during Exercise
• Muscle Blood Flow Increases during Exercise
• Blood Pressure Rises Slightly during Exercise
• The Baroreceptor Reflex Adjusts to Exercise
• Feedforward Responses to Exercise
• Temperature Regulation During Exercise
• Exercise and Health
• Exercise Lowers the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease
• Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus May Improve with Exercise
• Stress and the Immune System May Be Influenced by Exercise
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Chapter 26: Reproduction and Development
• RUNNING PROBLEM Infertility
• Sex Determination
• Sex Chromosomes Determine Genetic Sex
• Sexual Differentiation Occurs Early in Development
• CLINICAL FOCUS X‐Linked Inherited Disorders
• Basic Patterns of Reproduction
• CLINICAL FOCUS Determining Sex
• Gametogenesis Begins in Utero
• The Brain Directs Reproduction
• Environmental Factors Influence Reproduction
• Male Reproduction
• Testes Produce Sperm and Hormones
• Spermatogenesis Requires Gonadotropins and Testosterone
• Male Accessory Glands Contribute Secretions to Semen
• Androgens Influence Secondary Sex Characteristics
• Female Reproduction
• The Ovary Produces Eggs and Hormones
• A Menstrual Cycle Lasts about One Month
• Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle Is Complex
• Hormones Influence Female Secondary Sex Characteristics
• Procreation
• The Human Sexual Response Has Four Phases
• The Male Sex Act Includes Erection and Ejaculation
• Sexual Dysfunction Affects Males and Females
• Contraceptives Are Designed to Prevent Pregnancy
• Infertility Is the Inability to Conceive
• Pregnancy and Parturition
• Fertilization Requires Capacitation
• The Developing Embryo Implants in the Endometrium
• The Placenta Secretes Hormones During Pregnancy
• Pregnancy Ends with Labor and Delivery
• The Mammary Glands Secrete Milk During Lactation
• Growth and Aging
• Puberty Marks the Beginning of the Reproductive Years
• Menopause and Andropause Are a Consequence of Aging
• CHAPTER SUMMARY
• REVIEW QUESTIONS
• Appendices
• Appendix A Answers
• Appendix B Physics and Math
• Appendix C Genetics
• Photo Credits
• Glossary/Index
• Back Cover