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• About the Author
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Section I Foundations for Social Research
• Chapter 1 Science, Society, and Social Research
• Learning About the Social World
• Motives for Social Research
• Avoiding Errors in Reasoning About the Social World
• Observing
• Generalizing
• Reasoning
• Reevaluating
• Science and Social Science
• The Scientific Approach
• Pseudoscience or Science
• Types of Social Research
• Descriptive Research
• Exploratory Research
• Explanatory Research
• Evaluation Research
• Strengths and Limitations of Social Research
• Alternative Research Orientations
• Quantitative and/or Qualitative Methods
• Philosophical Perspectives
• Basic Science or Applied Research
• The Role of Values
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Chapter 2 The Process and Problems of Social Research
• Social Research Questions
• Identifying Social Research Questions
• Refining Social Research Questions
• Evaluating Social Research Questions
• Feasibility
• Social Importance
• Scientific Relevance
• Social Theories
• Scientific Paradigms
• Searching for Prior Research
• Searching the Literature
• Searching the Web
• Reviewing Prior Research
• Single-Article Reviews: Aggressive Policing and Educational Performance of Minority Youth
• Integrated Literature Reviews: When Does Arrest Matter?
• Systematic Literature Reviews: Second Responder Programs and Repeat Family Abuse Incidents
• Social Research Strategies
• Explanatory Research
• Deductive Research
• Body-Worn Cameras and the Research Circle
• Inductive Research
• An Inductive Approach to Explaining Support for Black Lives Matter
• Exploratory Research
• Black Youths’ Strategies for Navigating Police Contact
• Descriptive Research
• Social Research Standards
• Measurement Validity
• Generalizability
• Causal Validity
• Authenticity
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Chapter 3 Research Ethics and Research Proposals
• Historical Background
• Ethical Principles
• Achievement of Valid Results
• Honesty and Openness
• Protection of Research Participants
• Avoid Harming Research Participants
• Obtain Informed Consent
• Avoid Deception in Research, Except in Limited Circumstances
• Maintain Privacy and Confidentiality
• Consider Uses of Research So That Benefits Outweigh Risks
• Informed Consent Forms
• The Institutional Review Board
• Social Research Proposals
• Case Study: Evaluating a Public Health Program
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Section II Fundamentals of Social Research
• Chapter 4 Conceptualization and Measurement
• Concepts
• Conceptualization in Practice
• Tolerance
• Poverty
• From Concepts to Indicators
• Operationalizing the Concept of Race
• Operationalizing Perceived Threat From Immigrants
• The Inductive Approach to Conceptualization
• Measurement
• Constructing Questions
• Making Observations
• Collecting Unobtrusive Measures
• Physical Trace Evidence
• Using Available Data
• Coding Content
• Taking Pictures
• Combining Measurement Operations
• Levels of Measurement
• Nominal Level of Measurement
• Ordinal Level of Measurement
• Interval Level of Measurement
• Ratio Level of Measurement
• The Special Case of Dichotomies
• Comparison of Levels of Measurement
• Evaluating Measures
• Measurement Validity
• Face Validity
• Content Validity
• Criterion Validity
• Construct Validity
• Measurement Reliability
• Multiple Times: Test–Retest and Alternate Forms
• Multiple Indicators: Interitem and Split-Half
• Multiple Observers: Interobserver and Intercoder
• Ways to Improve Reliability and Validity
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Chapter 5 Sampling and Generalizability
• Sample Planning
• The Purpose of Sampling
• Define Sample Components and the Population
• Sample Generalizability
• Assess the Diversity of the Population
• Consider a Census
• Probability and Representativeness
• Probability Sampling Methods
• Simple Random Sampling
• Systematic Random Sampling
• Stratified Random Sampling
• Multistage Cluster Sampling
• Probability Sampling Methods Compared
• Nonprobability Sampling Methods
• Availability (Convenience) Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Purposive Sampling
• Snowball Sampling
• Respondent-Driven Sampling
• Lessons About Sample Quality
• Generalizability With Web-Based Samples
• Generalizability in Qualitative Research
• Sampling Distributions
• Estimating Sampling Error
• Sample Size Considerations
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Chapter 6 Research Design and Causation
• Units of Analysis
• Individual and Group
• The Ecological Fallacy and Reductionism
• Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Designs
• Cross-Sectional Designs
• Longitudinal Designs
• Nomothetic or Idiographic Causal Explanations
• Nomothetic Causal Explanations
• Idiographic Causal Explanations
• Criteria for Nomothetic Causal Explanations
• Association
• Time Order
• Experimental Designs
• Nonexperimental Designs
• Nonspuriousness
• Randomization
• Statistical Control
• Cautions for Nomothetic Causal Explanations
• Mechanism
• Context
• Comparing Research Designs
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Section III Basic Social Research Designs
• Chapter 7 Experiments
• True Experiments
• Experimental and Comparison Groups
• Pretest and Posttest Measures
• Randomization
• Limitations of True Experimental Designs
• Summary: Causality in True Experiments
• Association Between the Hypothesized Independent and Dependent Variables
• Time Order of Effects of One Variable on the Others
• Nonspurious Relationships Between Variables
• Mechanism That Creates the Causal Effect
• Context in Which Change Occurs
• Quasi-Experiments
• Nonequivalent Control Group Designs
• Aggregate Matching
• Individual Matching
• Before-and-After Designs
• Summary: Causality in Quasi-Experiments
• Association Between the Hypothesized Independent and Dependent Variables
• Time Order of Effects of One Variable on the Others
• Nonspurious Relationships Between Variables
• Mechanism That Creates the Causal Effect
• Context in Which Change Occurs
• Nonexperimental Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs
• Causal (Internal) Validity in Experiments
• Sources of Internal Invalidity Reduced by a Comparison Group
• Sources of Internal Invalidity Reduced by Randomization
• Sources of Internal Invalidity That Require Attention While the Experiment Is in Progress
• Generalizability in Experiments
• Sample Generalizability
• Factorial Surveys
• External Validity
• Interaction of Testing and Treatment
• Ethical Issues in Experimental Research
• Deception
• Selective Distribution of Benefits
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Chapter 8 Survey Research
• Survey Research in the Social Sciences
• Attractions of Survey Research
• Versatility
• Efficiency
• Generalizability
• The Omnibus Survey
• Errors in Survey Research
• Poor Measurement
• Nonresponse
• Inadequate Coverage of the Population
• Sampling Error
• Writing Survey Questions
• Avoid Confusing Phrasing
• Minimize the Risk of Bias
• Maximize the Utility of Response Categories
• Avoid Making Either Disagreement or Agreement Disagreeable
• Minimize Fence-Sitting and Floating
• Combining Questions in Indexes
• Designing Questionnaires
• Build on Existing Instruments
• Refine and Test Questions
• Add Interpretive Questions
• Maintain Consistent Focus
• Order the Questions
• Make the Questionnaire Attractive
• Consider Language and Culture
• Organizing Surveys
• Mailed, Self-Administered Surveys
• Group-Administered Surveys
• Telephone Surveys
• Reaching Sample Units
• Maximizing Response to Phone Surveys
• In-Person Interviews
• Maximizing Response to Interviews
• Web Surveys
• Mixed-Mode Surveys
• A Comparison of Survey Designs
• Ethical Issues in Survey Research
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Chapter 9 Quantitative Data Analysis
• Introducing Statistics
• Case Study: The Likelihood of Voting
• Preparing for Data Analysis
• Displaying Univariate Distributions
• Graphs
• Bar Chart
• Histograms
• Frequency Polygon
• Misuse of Graphs
• Frequency Distributions
• Ungrouped Data
• Grouped Data
• Combined and Compressed Distributions
• Summarizing Univariate Distributions
• Measures of Central Tendency
• Mode
• Median
• Mean
• Median or Mean?
• Measures of Variation
• Range
• Interquartile Range
• Variance
• Standard Deviation
• Cross-Tabulating Variables
• Constructing Contingency Tables
• Graphing Association
• Describing Association
• Evaluating Association
• Controlling for a Third Variable
• Intervening Variables
• Extraneous Variables
• Specification
• Regression Analysis
• Analyzing Data Ethically
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Chapter 10 Qualitative Methods
• Fundamentals of Qualitative Methods
• History of Qualitative Research
• Features of Qualitative Research
• Collection Primarily of Qualitative Rather Than Quantitative Data
• A Focus on Previously Unstudied Processes and Unanticipated Phenomena
• Exploratory Research Questions, With a Commitment to Inductive Reasoning
• Sensitivity to the Subjective Role of the Researcher (Reflexivity)
• An Orientation to Social Context, to the Interconnections Between Social Phenomena Rather Than to Their Discrete Features
• A Focus on Human Subjectivity, on the Meanings That Participants Attach to Events and That People Give to Their Lives
• Use of Idiographic Rather Than Nomothetic Causal Explanation
• Acceptance—by Some Qualitative Researchers—of a Constructivist Philosophy
• Adaptive Research Design, in Which the Design Develops as the Research Progresses
• Styles of Qualitative Research
• The Case Study
• Ethnography
• Digital Ethnography
• Hybrid Ethnography
• Participant Observation
• Choosing a Role
• Covert Observation
• Overt Observation
• Overt Participation (Participant Observer)
• Covert Participation
• Entering the Field
• Developing and Maintaining Relationships
• Sampling People and Events
• Taking Notes
• Managing the Personal Dimensions
• Intensive Interviewing
• Establishing and Maintaining a Partnership
• Asking Questions and Recording Answers
• Interviewing Online
• Focus Groups
• Generalizability in Qualitative Research
• Ethical Issues
• Voluntary Participation
• Subject Well-Being
• Identity Disclosure
• Confidentiality
• Appropriate Boundaries
• Researcher Safety
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Chapter 11 Qualitative Data Analysis
• Features of Qualitative Data Analysis
• Qualitative Data Analysis as an Art
• Qualitative Compared With Quantitative Data Analysis
• Techniques of Qualitative Data Analysis
• Documentation
• Coding, Categorization, and Condensation
• Examination and Display of Relationships
• Corroboration and Legitimization of Conclusions
• Reflection on the Researcher’s Role
• Alternatives in Qualitative Data Analysis
• Grounded Theory
• Abductive Analysis
• Case-Oriented Understanding
• Conversation Analysis
• Narrative Analysis
• Qualitative Comparative Analysis
• Combining Qualitative Methods
• Visual Sociology
• Systematic Observation
• Participatory Action Research
• Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis
• Ethics in Qualitative Data Analysis
• Privacy, Confidentiality, and Anonymity
• Intervention and Advocacy
• Research Integrity andQquality
• Ownership of Data and Conclusions
• Use and Misuse of Results
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis
• Section IV Complex Social Research Designs
• Chapter 12 Mixed Methods
• History of Mixed Methods
• Diagramming Mixed Methods
• Types of Mixed Methods
• Integrated Mixed-Methods Designs
• Embedded Mixed-Methods Designs
• Staged Mixed-Methods Designs
• Complex Research Program Mixed-Methods Designs
• Strengths and Limitations of Mixed Methods
• Ethics and Mixed Methods
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Chapter 13 Evaluation and Policy Research
• History of Evaluation Research
• Evaluation Basics
• Questions for Evaluation Research
• Needs Assessment
• Evaluability Assessment
• Process Evaluation
• Impact Analysis
• Efficiency Analysis
• Design Decisions
• Black Box Evaluation or Program Theory
• Researcher or Stakeholder Orientation
• Quantitative or Qualitative Methods
• Simple or Complex Outcomes
• Groups or Individuals
• Policy Research
• Ethics in Evaluation
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Chapter 14 Using Secondary Data and Big Data
• Secondary Data Analysis
• Overview
• Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research
• Types of Data Available From ICPSR
• Obtaining Data From ICPSR
• Secondary Data From Government and Other Sources
• U.S. Census Bureau
• Integrated Public Use Microdata Series
• Bureau of Labor Statistics
• Other Government Sources
• Other Data Sources
• Societal Experts Action Network (SEAN)
• Harvard’s Dataverse
• International Data Sources
• Qualitative Data Sources
• Challenges for Secondary Data Analyses
• Big Data
• Background
• Examples of Research Using Big Data
• Digital Methods
• Challenges for Using Big Data
• Ethical Issues With Secondary Data and Big Data
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercise
• Chapter 15 Historical and Comparative Methods and Content Analysis
• Overview of Historical and Comparative Research Methods
• Historical Social Science Methods
• Historical Events Research
• Event-Structure Analysis
• Oral History
• Historical Process Research
• Cautions for Historical Methods
• Comparative Social Science Methods
• Comparative Cross-Sectional Research
• Comparative Historical Research
• Comparative Case Study Designs
• Cautions for Comparative Methods
• Demographic Analysis
• Content Analysis
• Identify a Population of Documents or Other Textual Sources
• Determine the Units of Analysis
• Select a Sample of Units From the Population
• Design Coding Procedures for the Variables to Be Measured
• Develop Appropriate Statistical Analyses
• Ethical Issues in Historical and Comparative Research and Content Analysis
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Chapter 16 Summarizing and Reporting Research
• Writing Research
• Displaying Research
• Performing Meta-Analyses
• Case Study: Vaccine Intentions Across 28 Large National Samples
• Reporting Research
• Journal Articles
• Case Study: Does Protest Against Police Violence Matter?
• Applied Research Reports
• Findings From Living in Boston During COVID-19: Economic Impact
• Framing an Applied Report
• Research Videos
• Research Posters and Presentations
• Reporting Quantitative and Qualitative Research
• Ethics, Politics, and Research Reports
• Plagiarism
• Conclusions
• Key Terms
• Highlights
• Discussion Questions
• SPSS Exercises
• Appendix A: Questions to Ask About a Research Article
• Appendix B: Table of Random Numbers
• Glossary
• Bibliography
• Index