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• Preface
• Who this book is for
• What this book covers
• To get the most out of this book
• Get in touch
• Blockchain 101
• The growth of blockchain technology
• Progress towards maturity
• Rising interest
• Distributed systems
• CAP theorem
• PACELC theorem
• The history of blockchain
• Bitcoin
• Electronic cash
• Introducing blockchain
• Blockchain architecture
• Blockchain by layers
• Blockchain in business
• Generic elements of a blockchain
• Blockchain functionality
• Benefits and features of blockchain
• Limitations of blockchain technology
• Types of blockchain
• Distributed ledgers
• Shared ledger
• Public blockchains
• Private blockchains
• Semi-private blockchains
• Permissioned ledger
• Fully private and proprietary blockchains
• Tokenized blockchains
• Tokenless blockchains
• Layer 1 blockchains
• Monolithic and polylithic blockchains
• Layer 2 blockchains
• Sidechains
• Summary
• Decentralization
• Introducing decentralization
• Methods of decentralization
• Disintermediation
• Contest-driven decentralization
• Quantifying decentralization
• Benefits of decentralization
• Evaluating requirements
• Full-ecosystem decentralization
• Storage
• Communication
• Computing power
• Decentralization in practice
• Smart contracts
• Autonomous agents
• Decentralized organizations
• Decentralized autonomous organizations
• Decentralized autonomous corporations
• Decentralized autonomous societies
• Decentralized applications
• Criteria for a DApp
• Operations of a DApp
• Design of a DApp
• Innovative trends
• Decentralized web
• Web 1
• Web 2
• Web 3
• Summary
• Symmetric Cryptography
• Introducing cryptography
• Services provided by cryptography
• Cryptographic primitives
• Keyless primitives
• Random numbers
• Hash functions
• Symmetric key primitives
• Message authentication codes
• Secret key ciphers
• Advanced Encryption Standard
• Data Encryption Standard
• How AES works
• Encrypting and decrypting using AES
• Summary
• Asymmetric Cryptography
• Foundational mathematics
• Asymmetric cryptography
• Public and private keys
• Asymmetric cryptography algorithms
• Integer factorization
• Discrete logarithm
• Elliptic curves
• Integrated encryption scheme
• Introducing RSA
• Encrypting and decrypting with RSA
• Introducing ECC
• Mathematics behind ECC
• Point addition
• Point doubling
• Point multiplication
• The discrete logarithm problem
• Generating keys with ECC
• Digital signatures
• RSA digital signature algorithms
• Generating RSA digital signatures
• The elliptic curve digital signature algorithm
• Generating ECDSA digital signatures
• Different types of digital signatures
• Blind signatures
• Multisignatures
• Threshold signatures
• Aggregate signatures
• Ring signatures
• Cryptographic constructs and blockchain technology
• Homomorphic encryption
• Secret sharing
• Commitment schemes
• Zero-knowledge proofs
• zk-SNARKs
• zk-STARKs
• Zero-knowledge range proofs
• Encoding schemes
• Base64
• base58
• Verifiable random functions
• Summary
• Consensus Algorithms
• Introducing consensus
• Fault tolerance
• FLP impossibility
• Analysis and design
• Model
• Processes
• Timing assumptions
• Classification
• Algorithms
• CFT algorithms
• Paxos
• Raft
• BFT algorithms
• Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance
• Istanbul Byzantine Fault Tolerance
• Tendermint
• Nakamoto consensus
• Variants of PoW
• HotStuff
• Choosing an algorithm
• Finality
• Speed, performance, and scalability
• Summary
• Bitcoin Architecture
• Introducing Bitcoin
• Cryptographic keys
• Private keys in Bitcoin
• Public keys in Bitcoin
• Addresses
• Typical Bitcoin addresses
• Advanced Bitcoin addresses
• Transactions
• Coinbase transactions
• The transaction lifecycle
• Transaction validation
• Transaction fees
• The transaction data structure
• Metadata
• Inputs
• Outputs
• Verification
• The Script language
• Opcodes
• Standard transaction scripts
• Contracts
• Transaction bugs
• Blockchain
• Structure
• The genesis block
• Stale and orphan blocks
• Forks
• Properties
• Miners
• Proof of Work (PoW)
• Mining systems
• CPU
• GPU
• FPGAs
• ASICs
• Mining pools
• Network
• Types of messages
• Client software
• Bloom filters
• Wallets
• Summary
• Bitcoin in Practice
• Bitcoin in the real world
• Bitcoin payments
• Innovation in Bitcoin
• Bitcoin improvement proposals
• Advanced protocols
• Segregated Witness
• Bitcoin Cash
• Bitcoin Unlimited
• Bitcoin Gold
• Taproot
• Extended protocols on top of Bitcoin
• Colored coins
• Counterparty
• Altcoins from Bitcoin
• Bitcoin client installation
• Types of clients and tools
• Setting up a Bitcoin node
• Setting up the source code
• Setting up bitcoin.conf
• Starting up a node in the testnet
• Starting up a node in regtest
• Experimenting further with bitcoin-cli
• Using the Bitcoin command-line tool
• Using the JSON-RPC interface
• Using the HTTP REST interface
• Bitcoin programming
• Summary
• Smart Contracts
• Introducing smart contracts
• Definitions
• Properties
• Real-world application
• Ricardian contracts
• Smart contract templates
• Oracles
• Software-and network-assisted proofs
• TLSNotary
• TLS-N-based mechanism
• Hardware device-assisted proofs
• Android proof
• Ledger proof
• Trusted hardware-assisted proofs
• Types of blockchain oracles
• Inbound oracles
• Outbound oracles
• Cryptoeconomic oracles
• Blockchain oracle services
• Deploying smart contracts
• The DAO
• Advances in smart contract technology
• Solana Sealevel
• Digital Asset Modeling Language
• Summary
• Ethereum Architecture
• Introducing Ethereum
• Cryptocurrency
• Keys and addresses
• Accounts
• Transactions and messages
• MPTs
• Transaction components
• Recursive Length Prefix
• Gas
• Transaction types
• Simple transactions
• Contract creation transactions
• Message call transactions
• Messages
• Transaction validation and execution
• State and storage in the Ethereum blockchain
• The world state
• The account state
• Transaction receipts
• Ethereum virtual machine
• Execution environment
• The machine state
• Blocks and blockchain
• The genesis block
• Block validation, finalization, and processing
• Block difficulty mechanism
• Nodes and miners
• The consensus mechanism
• Forks in the blockchain
• The Ethereum network
• Main net
• Test nets
• Private nets
• Precompiled smart contracts
• Programming languages
• Solidity
• Runtime bytecode
• Opcodes
• Wallets and client software
• Wallets
• Geth
• Light clients
• Supporting protocols
• Whisper
• Swarm
• Summary
• Ethereum in Practice
• Ethereum payments
• Innovations in Ethereum
• Difficulty time bomb
• EIP-1559
• The merge and upcoming upgrades
• Programming with Geth
• Installing and configuring the Geth client
• Creating a Geth new account
• Querying the blockchain using Geth
• Geth console
• Geth attach
• Geth JSON RPC API
• Setting up a development environment
• Connecting to test networks
• Creating a private network
• Starting up the private network
• Experimenting with the Geth JavaScript console
• Mining and sending transactions
• Introducing Remix IDE
• Interacting with the Ethereum Blockchain with MetaMask
• Installing MetaMask
• Creating and funding an account with MetaMask
• Using MetaMask and Remix IDE to deploy a smart contract
• Adding a custom network to MetaMask and connecting it with Remix IDE
• Importing accounts into MetaMask using keystore files
• Deploying a contract with MetaMask
• Interacting with a contract through MetaMask using Remix IDE
• Summary
• Tools, Languages, and Frameworks for Ethereum Developers
• Languages
• The Solidity compiler
• Installing solc
• Experimenting with solc
• Tools, libraries, and frameworks
• Node.js
• Ganache
• ganache-cli
• Ganache UI
• Truffle
• Drizzle
• Other tools
• Contract development and deployment
• Writing smart contracts
• Testing smart contracts
• Deploying smart contracts
• The Solidity language
• Functions
• Variables
• Local variables
• Global variables
• State variables
• Data types
• Value types
• Reference types
• Control structures
• Events
• Inheritance
• Libraries
• Error handling
• Summary
• Web3 Development Using Ethereum
• Interacting with contracts using Web3 and Geth
• Deploying contracts
• Using solc to generate ABI and code
• Querying contracts with Geth
• Interacting with Geth using POST requests
• Interacting with contracts via frontends
• Installing the web3.js JavaScript library
• Creating a web3 object
• Creating an app.js JavaScript file
• Creating a frontend webpage
• Calling contract functions
• Creating a frontend webpage
• Deploying and interacting with contracts using Truffle
• Installing and initializing Truffle
• Compiling, testing, and migrating using Truffle
• Interacting with the contract
• Using Truffle to test and deploy smart contracts
• Deployment on decentralized storage using IPFS
• Summary
• The Merge and Beyond
• Introduction
• Ethereum after The Merge
• The Beacon Chain
• Beacon nodes
• Consensus client
• Execution client
• Validator client
• Proof-of-stake
• P2P interface (networking)
• The Merge
• Sharding
• The future roadmap of Ethereum
• Summary
• Hyperledger
• Projects under Hyperledger
• Distributed ledgers
• Fabric
• Sawtooth
• Iroha
• Indy
• Besu
• Libraries
• Aries
• Transact
• Ursa
• AnonCreds
• Tools
• Cello
• Caliper
• Domain-specific
• Grid
• Hyperledger reference architecture
• Hyperledger design principles
• Hyperledger Fabric
• Key concepts
• Membership service
• Blockchain services
• Smart contract services
• APIs and CLIs
• Components
• Peers/nodes
• Clients
• Channels
• World state database
• Private data collections
• Transactions
• Membership Service Provider
• Smart contracts
• Crypto service provider
• Applications
• Chaincode implementation
• The application model
• Consensus mechanism
• Transaction lifecycle
• Fabric 2.0
• New chaincode lifecycle management
• New chaincode application patterns
• Summary
• Tokenization
• Tokenization on a blockchain
• Advantages of tokenization
• Disadvantages of tokenization
• Types of tokens
• Fungible tokens
• Non-fungible tokens
• Stable tokens
• Security tokens
• Process of tokenization
• Token offerings
• Initial coin offerings
• Security token offerings
• Initial exchange offerings
• Equity token offerings
• Decentralized autonomous initial coin offering
• Other token offerings
• Token standards
• ERC-20
• ERC-223
• ERC-777
• ERC-721
• ERC-884
• ERC-1400
• ERC-1404
• ERC-1155
• ERC-4626
• Building an ERC-20 token
• Building the Solidity contract
• Deploying the contract on the Remix JavaScript virtual machine
• Adding tokens in MetaMask
• Emerging concepts
• Tokenomics/token economics
• Token engineering
• Token taxonomy
• Summary
• Enterprise Blockchain
• Enterprise solutions and blockchain
• Success factors
• Limiting factors
• Requirements
• Privacy
• Performance
• Access governance
• Further requirements
• Compliance
• Interoperability
• Integration
• Ease of use
• Monitoring
• Secure off-chain computation
• Better tools
• Enterprise blockchain versus public blockchain
• Enterprise blockchain architecture
• Designing enterprise blockchain solutions
• TOGAF
• Architecture development method (ADM)
• Blockchain in the cloud
• Currently available enterprise blockchains
• Enterprise blockchain challenges
• Interoperability
• Lack of standardization
• Compliance
• Business challenges
• VMware Blockchain
• Components
• Consensus protocol
• Architecture
• VMware Blockchain for Ethereum
• Quorum
• Architecture
• Nodes
• Privacy manager
• Cryptography
• Privacy
• Enclave encryption
• Transaction propagation to transaction managers
• Enclave decryption
• Access control with permissioning
• Performance
• Pluggable consensus
• Setting up a Quorum network with IBFT
• Installing and running Quorum Wizard
• Running a private transaction
• Attaching Geth to nodes
• Viewing the transaction in Cakeshop
• Further investigation with Geth
• Other Quorum projects
• Remix plugin
• Pluggable architecture
• Summary
• Scalability
• What is scalability?
• Blockchain trilemma
• Methods for improving scalability
• Layer 0 – multichain solutions
• Polkadot
• Layer 1 – on-chain scaling solutions
• Layer 2 – off-chain solutions
• Layer 2
• Rollups
• Data validity
• Data availability
• How rollups work
• Types of rollups
• Optimistic rollups
• ZK-rollups
• Technologies used for building ZK-rollups
• ZK-ZK-rollups
• Optimistic rollups vs ZK-rollups
• Fraud and validity proof-based classification of rollups
• Example
• Layer 3 and beyond
• Summary
• Blockchain Privacy
• Privacy
• Anonymity
• Confidentiality
• Techniques to achieve privacy
• Layer 0
• Tor
• I2P
• Indistinguishability obfuscation
• Homomorphic encryption
• Secure multiparty computation
• Trusted hardware-assisted confidentiality
• Mixing protocols
• CoinSwap
• TumbleBit
• Dandelion
• Confidential transactions
• MimbleWimble
• Zkledger
• Attribute-based encryption
• Anonymous signatures
• Zether
• Privacy using Layer 2 protocols
• Privacy managers
• Privacy using zero-knowledge
• Cryptographic Commitments
• Zero-knowledge proofs
• Building ZK-SNARKs
• Example
• Summary
• Blockchain Security
• Security
• Blockchain layers and attacks
• Hardware layer
• Network layer
• Blockchain layer
• Attacks on transactions
• Transaction replay attacks
• Attacks on consensus protocols
• Double-spending
• Selfish mining
• Forking and chain reorganization
• Blockchain application layer
• Smart contract vulnerabilities
• DeFi attacks
• Interface layer
• Oracle attacks/oracle manipulation attacks
• Attacks on wallets
• Attacks on layer 2 blockchains
• Cryptography layer
• Attacking public key cryptography
• Attacking hash functions
• Key management-related vulnerabilities and attacks
• ZKP-related attacks
• Security analysis tools and mechanism
• Formal verification
• Formal verification of smart contracts
• Model checking
• Smart contract security
• Oyente
• Solgraph
• Threat modeling
• Regulation and compliance
• Summary
• Decentralized Identity
• Identity
• Digital identity
• Centralized identity model
• Federated identity model
• Decentralized identity model
• Self-sovereign identity
• Components of SSI
• Identity in Ethereum
• Identity in the world of Web3, DeFi, and Metaverse
• SSI-specific blockchain projects
• Hyperledger Indy, Aries, Ursa, and AnonCreds
• Other projects
• Some other initiatives
• Challenges
• Summary
• Decentralized Finance
• Introduction
• Financial markets
• Trading
• Exchanges
• Orders and order properties
• Order management and routing systems
• Components of a trade
• Trade lifecycle
• Applications of blockchain in finance
• Insurance
• Post-trade settlement
• Financial crime prevention
• Payments
• Decentralized finance
• Properties of DeFi
• DeFi layers
• DeFi primitives
• DeFi services
• Asset tokenization
• Decentralized exchanges
• Flash loans
• Derivatives
• Money streaming
• Yield farming
• Insurance
• Decentralized lending – lending and borrowing
• Benefits of DeFi
• Uniswap
• Swap the token
• Uniswap liquidity pool
• Summary
• Blockchain Applications and What’s Next
• Use cases
• IoT
• IoT architecture
• The physical object layer
• The device layer
• The network layer
• The management layer
• The application layer
• Benefits of IoT and blockchain convergence
• Implementing blockchain-based IoT in practice
• Setting up Raspberry Pi
• Setting up the first node
• Setting up the Raspberry Pi node
• Installing Node.js
• Building the electronic circuit
• Developing and running a Solidity contract
• Government
• Border control
• Elections
• Citizen identification
• Health
• Media
• Blockchain and AI
• Some emerging trends
• Some challenges
• Summary
• Index