Efnisyfirlit

• Measurement and Instrumentation
• Measurement and Instrumentation
• Copyright
• Contents
• Preface
• 1 – Fundamentals of measurement systems
• 1.1 Introduction
• 1.2 Measurement units
• 1.3 Measurement system design
• 1.3.1 Elements of a measurement system
• 1.3.2 Choosing appropriate measuring instruments
• 1.4 Measurement system applications
• 1.5 Summary
• 1.6 Problems
• 2 – Instrument types and performance characteristics
• 2.1 Introduction
• 2.2 Review of instrument types
• 2.2.1 Active and passive instruments
• 2.2.2 Null-type and deflection-type instruments
• 2.2.3 Analog and digital instruments
• 2.2.4 Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output
• 2.2.5 Smart and nonsmart instruments
• 2.3 Static characteristics of instruments
• 2.4 Dynamic characteristics of instruments
• 2.4.1 Zero-order instrument
• 2.4.2 First-order instrument
• 2.4.3 Second-order instrument
• 2.5 Necessity for calibration
• 2.6 Summary
• 2.7 Problems
• 3 – Measurement uncertainty
• 3.1 Introduction
• 3.2 Sources of systematic error
• 3.2.1 System disturbance due to measurement
• Measurements in electric circuits
• 3.2.2 Errors due to environmental inputs
• 3.2.3 Wear in instrument components
• 3.2.4 Connecting leads
• 3.3 Reduction of systematic errors
• 3.4 Quantification of systematic errors
• 3.4.1 Quantification of individual systematic error components
• Environmental condition errors
• Calibration errors
• System disturbance errors
• Measurement system loading errors
• 3.4.2 Calculation of overall systematic error
• 3.5 Sources and treatment of random errors
• 3.6 Induced measurement noise
• 3.6.1 Inductive coupling
• 3.6.2 Capacitive (electrostatic) coupling
• 3.6.3 Noise due to multiple earths
• 3.6.4 Noise in the form of voltage transients
• 3.6.5 Thermoelectric potentials
• 3.6.6 Shot noise
• 3.6.7 Electrochemical potentials
• 3.7 Techniques for reducing induced measurement noise
• 3.7.1 Location and design of signal wires
• 3.7.2 Earthing
• 3.7.3 Shielding
• 3.7.4 Other techniques
• 3.8 Summary
• 3.9 Problems
• 4 – Statistical analysis of measurements subject to random errors
• 4.1 Introduction
• 4.2 Mean and median values
• 4.3 Standard deviation and variance
• 4.4 Graphical data analysis techniques: frequency distributions
• 4.5 Gaussian (Normal) distribution
• 4.6 Standard Gaussian tables (z distribution)
• 4.7 Standard error of the mean
• 4.8 Estimation of random error in a single measurement
• 4.9 Distribution of manufacturing tolerances
• 4.10 Chi-squared (χ2) distribution
• 4.11 Goodness of fit to a Gaussian distribution
• 4.11.1 Inspecting shape of histogram
• 4.11.2 Using a normal probability plot
• 4.11.3 Chi-squared test
• 4.12 Rogue data points (data outliers)
• 4.13 Student t distribution
• 4.14 Aggregation of measurement system errors
• 4.14.1 Combined effect of systematic and random errors
• 4.14.2 Aggregation of errors from separate measurement system components
• Error in a sum
• Error in a difference
• Error in a product
• Error in a quotient
• 4.14.3 Total error when combining multiple measurements
• 4.15 Summary
• 4.16 Problems
• 5 – Calibration of measuring sensors and instruments
• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.2 Principles of calibration
• 5.3 Control of calibration environment
• 5.4 Calibration chain and traceability
• 5.5 Calibration records
• 5.6 Summary
• 5.7 Problems
• References
• 6 – Conversion of nonvoltage sensor outputs
• 6.1 Introduction
• 6.2 Resistance measurement using a direct current bridge circuit
• 6.2.1 Null-type, direct current bridge (Wheatstone bridge)
• 6.2.2 Deflection-type direct current bridge
• Case where current drawn by measuring instrument is not negligible
• 6.2.3 Error analysis
• Apex balancing
• 6.3 Impedance measurement using alternating current bridges
• 6.3.1 Null-type impedance bridge
• 6.3.2 Maxwell and Hay’s bridges
• 6.3.3 Deflection-type alternating current bridge
• 6.4 Alternative methods for measuring resistance
• 6.4.1 Voltmeter-ammeter method
• 6.4.2 Resistance-substitution method
• 6.4.3 Measurement using a digital voltmeter
• 6.4.4 Measurement using an ohmmeter
• 6.5 Alternative method for measuring inductance
• 6.6 Alternative methods to measure capacitance
• 6.7 Current measurement
• 6.8 Frequency measurement
• 6.8.1 Measurement using a digital counter-timer
• 6.8.2 Measurement using a phase-locked loop
• 6.8.3 Measurement using an oscilloscope
• 6.8.4 Measurement using a Wien bridge
• 6.9 Phase measurement
• 6.9.1 Measurement using an electronic counter-timer
• 6.9.2 Measurement using an X–Y plotter
• 6.9.3 Measurement using an oscilloscope
• 6.9.4 Measurement using a phase-sensitive detector
• 6.10 Summary
• 6.11 Problems
• 7 – Measurement signal transmission
• 7.1 Introduction
• 7.2 Analog transmission using copper conductors
• 7.2.1 Transmission as varying voltages
• 7.2.2 Current loop transmission
• 7.2.3 Transmission using an A.C. carrier
• 7.3 Digital transmission using copper conductors
• 7.4 Fiber-optic transmission
• 7.4.1 Principles of fiber optics
• 7.4.2 Transmission characteristics
• 7.4.3 Multiplexing schemes
• 7.5 Optical wireless telemetry (open air path transmission)
• 7.6 Radio telemetry (radio wireless transmission)
• 7.7 Pneumatic transmission
• 7.8 Summary
• 7.9 Problems
• 8 – Principles of data acquisition and signal processing
• 8.1 Introduction
• 8.2 Preliminary definitions
• 8.3 Sensor signal characteristics
• 8.4 Aliasing
• 8.5 Quantization
• 8.6 Analog signal processing
• 8.7 Passive filters
• 8.7.1 Filter transfer function
• 8.7.2 Low-pass filter bode plot
• 8.7.3 Passive high-pass filter
• 8.8 Active filters
• 8.8.1 Active low-pass filter
• 8.8.2 Signal amplification
• 8.8.3 Noninverting amplifier
• 8.8.4 Differential amplification
• 8.8.5 Instrumentation amplifier
• 8.8.6 Other op-amp based filters and amplifiers
• 8.9 Digital filters
• 8.9.1 Filter with memory
• 8.9.2 Example
• 8.9.3 ARMA and IIR filters
• 8.10 Summary
• 8.11 Exercises
• Appendix
• Simple filter solution
• 9 – Use of LabVIEW in data acquisition and postprocessing of signals
• 9.1 Introduction
• 9.2 Computer-based data acquisition
• 9.3 Acquisition of data
• 9.4 National instruments LabVIEW
• Virtual instruments
• 9.5 Introduction to graphical programming in LabVIEW
• 9.6 Elements of the tools palette
• 9.7 Logic operations in LabVIEW
• 9.8 Loops in LabVIEW
• 9.9 Case structures in LabVIEW
• 9.10 Data acquisition using LabVIEW
• 9.11 LabVIEW function generation
• 9.12 LabVIEW implementation of digital filters
• 9.13 Higher-order digital filters in LabVIEW
• 9.14 Summary
• 9.15 Exercises
• 10 – Display, recording and presentation of measurement data
• 10.1 Introduction
• 10.2 Display of measurement signals
• 10.2.1 Digital meters
• 10.2.2 Analog meters
• Moving-coil meter
• Moving-iron meter
• Clamp-on meters
• Analog multimeter
• Measuring high-frequency signals with analog meters
• Calculation of meter outputs for nonstandard waveforms
• 10.2.3 Oscilloscopes
• Analog oscilloscope (Cathode ray oscilloscope)
• Digital storage oscilloscopes
• Digital phosphor oscilloscope
• Digital sampling oscilloscope
• PC-based oscilloscope
• 10.2.4 Electronic output displays
• 10.2.5 Computer monitor displays
• 10.3 Recording of measurement data
• 10.3.1 Chart recorders
• Pen strip chart recorder
• Multipoint strip chart recorder
• Circular chart recorder
• Paperless chart recorder
• Videographic recorder
• 10.3.2 Ink-jet and laser printers
• 10.3.3 Other recording instruments
• 10.3.4 Digital data recorders
• 10.4 Presentation of data
• 10.4.1 Tabular data presentation
• 10.4.2 Graphical presentation of data
• Fitting curves to data points on a graph
• Regression techniques
• Linear least squares regression
• Quadratic least squares regression
• Polynomial least squares regression
• Confidence tests in curve fitting by least squares regression
• Correlation tests
• 10.5 Summary
• 10.6 Problems
• 11 – Intelligent sensors
• 11.1 Introduction
• 11.2 Principles of digital computation
• 11.2.1 Elements of a computer
• 11.2.2 Computer operation
• Programming and program execution
• 11.2.3 Computer input–output interface
• Address decoding
• Data transfer control
• 11.2.4 Practical considerations in adding computers to measurement systems
• 11.3 Intelligent devices
• 11.3.1 Intelligent instruments
• 11.3.2 Smart sensors
• Calibration capability
• Self-diagnosis of faults
• Automatic calculation of measurement accuracy and compensation for random errors
• Adjustment for measurement nonlinearities
• 11.3.3 Smart transmitters
• Comparison of performance with other forms of transmitter
• Summary of advantages of smart transmitters
• Self-calibration
• Self-diagnosis and fault detection
• 11.4 Communication with intelligent devices
• 11.4.1 Input–output interface
• 11.4.2 Parallel data bus
• 11.4.3 Local area networks
• Star networks
• Ring and bus networks
• 11.4.4 Digital fieldbuses
• 11.5 Summary
• 11.6 Problems
• References
• 12 – Measurement reliability and safety systems
• 12.1 Introduction
• 12.2 Reliability
• 12.2.1 Principles of reliability
• Reliability quantification in quasiabsolute terms
• Failure patterns
• Reliability quantification in probabilistic terms
• 12.2.2 Laws of reliability in complex systems
• Reliability of components in series
• Reliability of components in parallel
• 12.2.3 Improving measurement system reliability
• Choice of instrument
• Instrument protection
• Regular calibration
• Redundancy
• 12.2.4 Software reliability
• Quantifying software reliability
• Improving software reliability
• 12.3 Safety systems
• 12.3.1 Introduction to safety systems
• IEC61508
• 12.3.2 Design of a safety system
• Two-out-of-three voting system
• Standby system
• Actuators and alarms
• 12.4 Summary
• 12.5 Problems
• References
• 13 – Sensor technologies
• 13.1 Introduction
• 13.2 Capacitive sensors
• 13.3 Resistive sensors
• 13.4 Magnetic sensors
• 13.5 Hall-effect sensors
• 13.6 Piezoelectric transducers
• 13.7 Strain gauges
• 13.8 Piezoresistive sensors
• 13.9 Optical sensors
• 13.9.1 Optical sensors (Air-path)
• Light sources
• Light detectors
• 13.9.2 Optical sensors (Fiber-optic)
• Intrinsic sensors
• Extrinsic sensors
• Distributed sensors
• 13.10 Ultrasonic transducers
• 13.10.1 Transmission speed
• 13.10.2 Directionality of ultrasound waves
• 13.10.3 Relationship between wavelength, frequency and directionality of ultrasound waves
• 13.10.4 Attenuation of ultrasound waves
• 13.10.5 Ultrasound as a range sensor
• Measurement resolution and accuracy
• 13.10.6 Effect of noise in ultrasonic measurement systems
• 13.10.7 Exploiting Doppler shift in ultrasound transmission
• 13.11 Nuclear sensors
• 13.12 Microsensors (MEMS sensors)
• 13.13 Nanosensors (NEMS sensors)
• 13.14 Summary
• 13.15 Problems
• Reference
• 14 – Temperature measurement
• 14.1 Introduction
• 14.2 Thermoelectric effect sensors (thermocouples)
• 14.2.1 Thermocouple tables
• 14.2.2 Nonzero reference junction temperature
• 14.2.3 Thermocouple types
• Base metal thermocouples
• Noble metal thermocouples
• 14.2.4 Thermocouple protection
• 14.2.5 Thermocouple manufacture
• 14.2.6 The thermopile
• 14.2.7 Digital thermometer
• 14.2.8 The continuous thermocouple
• 14.3 Varying-resistance devices
• 14.3.1 Resistance temperature device (resistance thermometer)
• 14.3.2 Thermistors
• 14.4 Semiconductor devices
• 14.5 Radiation thermometers
• 14.5.1 Optical pyrometer
• 14.5.2 Radiation pyrometers
• 14.6 Thermography (thermal imaging)
• 14.7 Thermal expansion methods
• 14.7.1 Liquid-in-glass thermometers
• 14.7.2 Bimetallic thermometer
• 14.7.3 Pressure thermometers
• 14.8 Fiber-optic temperature sensors
• 14.9 Color indicators
• 14.10 Pyrometric cones
• 14.11 Intelligent temperature-measuring instruments
• 14.12 Microelectromechanical system temperature sensors
• 14.13 Choice between temperature transducers
• 14.14 Calibration of temperature transducers
• 14.14.1 Reference instruments and special calibration equipment
• 14.14.2 Calculating frequency of calibration checks
• 14.14.3 Procedures for calibration
• 14.15 Summary
• 14.16 Problems
• 15 – Pressure measurement
• 15.1 Introduction
• 15.2 Diaphragms
• 15.3 Capacitive pressure sensor
• 15.4 Fiber-optic pressure sensors
• 15.5 Bellows
• 15.6 Bourdon tube
• 15.7 Manometers
• 15.8 Resonant-wire devices
• 15.9 Digital pressure gauges
• 15.9.1 Piezoresistive digital pressure gauge
• 15.9.2 Piezoelectric digital pressure gauge
• 15.9.3 Magnetic digital pressure gauge
• 15.9.4 Capacitive digital pressure gauge
• 15.9.5 Fiber-optic digital pressure sensor
• 15.9.6 Potentiometric digital pressure sensor
• 15.9.7 Resonant-wire digital pressure transducer
• 15.10 MEMS pressure sensors
• 15.11 Special measurement devices for low-pressures
• 15.12 High-pressure measurement (greater than 7000bar)
• 15.13 Intelligent pressure transducers
• 15.14 Differential pressure measuring devices
• 15.15 Selection of pressure sensors
• 15.16 Calibration of pressure sensors
• 15.16.1 Reference calibration instruments
• Dead-weight gauge (pressure balance)
• U-tube manometer
• Barometers
• Vibrating cylinder gauge
• Gold-chrome alloy resistance instruments
• McLeod gauge
• Ionization gauge
• Micromanometers
• 15.16.2 Calculating frequency of calibration checks
• 15.16.3 Procedures for calibration
• 15.17 Summary
• 15.18 Problems
• 16 – Flow measurement
• 16.1 Introduction
• 16.2 Mass flow rate
• 16.2.1 Conveyor-based methods
• 16.2.2 Coriolis flowmeter
• 16.2.3 Thermal mass flow measurement
• 16.2.4 Joint measurement of volume flow rate and fluid density
• 16.3 Volume flow rate
• 16.3.1 Differential pressure (obstruction-type) meters
• Orifice plate
• Venturis and similar devices
• Pitot static tube
• 16.3.2 Variable area flowmeters (Rotameters)
• 16.3.3 Positive displacement flowmeters
• 16.3.4 Turbine meters
• 16.3.5 Electromagnetic flowmeters
• 16.3.6 Vortex-shedding flowmeters
• 16.3.7 Ultrasonic flowmeters
• Doppler shift ultrasonic flowmeter
• Transit-time ultrasonic flowmeter
• Combined Doppler-shift/transit time flowmeters
• 16.3.8 Other types of flowmeter for measuring volume flow rate
• 16.3.9 Open channel flowmeters
• 16.4 Intelligent flowmeters
• 16.5 Choice between flowmeters for particular applications
• 16.6 Calibration of flowmeters
• 16.6.1 Calibration equipment and procedures for mass flow measuring instruments
• 16.6.2 Calibration equipment and procedures for instruments measuring the volume flow rate of liquid
• Calibrated tank
• Gravimetric method
• Pipe prover
• Compact prover
• Positive displacement meter
• Orifice plate
• Turbine meter
• 16.6.3 Calibration equipment and procedures for instruments measuring the volume flow rate of gases
• Bell prover
• Positive displacement meter
• Compact prover
• 16.6.4 Reference standards
• 16.7 Summary
• 16.8 Problems
• 17 – Level measurement
• 17.1 Introduction
• 17.2 Dipsticks
• 17.3 Float systems
• 17.4 Pressure-measuring devices (Hydrostatic systems)
• 17.5 Capacitive devices
• 17.6 Ultrasonic level gauge
• 17.7 Radar (microwave) sensors
• 17.8 Nucleonic (or radiometric) sensors
• 17.9 Vibrating level sensor
• 17.10 Intelligent level-measuring instruments
• 17.11 Choice between different level sensors
• 17.12 Calibration of level sensors
• 17.13 Summary
• 17.14 Problems
• 18 – Mass, force, and torque measurement
• 18.1 Introduction
• 18.2 Mass (weight) measurement
• 18.2.1 Electronic load cell (Electronic balance)
• 18.2.2 Pneumatic and Hydraulic load cells
• 18.2.3 Intelligent load cells
• 18.2.4 Mass balance (Weighing) instruments
• 18.2.5 Spring balance
• 18.3 Force measurement
• 18.3.1 Use of accelerometers
• 18.3.2 Vibrating wire sensor
• 18.3.3 Use of load cells
• 18.4 Torque measurement
• 18.4.1 Measurement of induced strain
• 18.4.2 Optical torque measurement
• 18.4.3 Torque measurement using surface acoustic wave MEMS devices
• 18.5 Calibration of mass, force and torque measuring sensors
• 18.5.1 Mass calibration
• Beam balance
• Weigh beam
• Electromagnetic balance
• Proof-ring-based load cell
• 18.5.2 Force sensor calibration
• 18.5.3 Calibration of torque-measuring systems
• 18.6 Summary
• 18.7 Problems
• Reference
• 19 – Translational motion, vibration, and shock measurement
• 19.1 Introduction
• 19.2 Displacement
• 19.2.1 Resistive potentiometer
• 19.2.2 Linear variable differential transformer
• 19.2.3 Variable capacitance transducers
• 19.2.4 Variable inductance transducers
• 19.2.5 Strain gauges and piezoresistive sensors
• 19.2.6 Piezoelectric transducers
• 19.2.7 Nozzle flapper
• 19.2.8 Other methods of measuring small- to medium-sized displacements
• Linear inductosyn
• Translation of linear displacements into rotary motion
• Integration of output from velocity transducers and accelerometers
• Laser interferometer
• Fotonic sensor
• Noncontacting optical sensor
• 19.2.9 Measurement of large displacements (range sensors)
• Energy source/detector-based range sensors
• Rotary potentiometer and spring-loaded drum
• 19.2.10 Proximity sensors
• 19.2.11 Choosing translational measurement transducers
• 19.2.12 Calibration of translational displacement measurement transducers
• 19.3 Velocity
• 19.3.1 Differentiation of displacement measurements
• 19.3.2 Integration of the output of an accelerometer
• 19.3.3 Conversion to rotational velocity
• 19.3.4 Calibration of velocity measurement systems
• 19.4 Acceleration
• 19.4.1 Selection of accelerometers
• 19.4.2 Calibration of accelerometers
• 19.5 Vibration
• 19.5.1 Nature of vibration
• 19.5.2 Vibration measurement
• 19.5.3 Calibration of vibration sensors
• 19.6 Shock
• 19.6.1 Calibration of shock sensors
• 19.7 Summary
• 19.8 Problems
• 20 – Rotational motion transducers
• 20.1 Introduction
• 20.2 Rotational displacement
• 20.2.1 Circular and helical potentiometers
• 20.2.2 Rotational variable differential transformer
• 20.2.3 Incremental shaft encoders
• 20.2.4 Coded-disk shaft encoders
• Optical digital shaft encoder
• Contacting (electrical) digital shaft encoder
• Magnetic digital shaft encoder
• 20.2.5 The resolver
• Varying amplitude output resolver
• Varying phase output resolver
• 20.2.6 The synchro
• 20.2.7 The rotary inductosyn
• 20.2.8 Gyroscopes
• Mechanical gyroscopes
• Optical gyroscopes
• 20.2.9 Choice between rotational displacement transducers
• 20.2.10 Calibration of rotational displacement transducers
• 20.3 Rotational velocity
• 20.3.1 Digital tachometers
• Optical sensing
• Inductive sensing
• Magnetic (Hall-effect) sensing
• 20.3.2 Stroboscopic methods
• 20.3.3 Analog tachometers
• 20.3.4 The rate gyroscope
• 20.3.5 Fiber-optic gyroscope
• 20.3.6 MEMS gyroscope
• 20.3.7 Differentiation of angular displacement measurements
• 20.3.8 Integration of the output from an accelerometer
• 20.3.9 Choice between rotational velocity transducers
• 20.3.10 Calibration of rotational velocity transducers
• 20.4 Rotational acceleration
• 20.4.1 Calibration of rotational accelerometers
• 20.5 Summary
• 20.6 Problems
• 21 – Summary of other measurements
• 21.1 Introduction
• 21.2 Dimension measurement
• 21.2.1 Rules and tapes
• 21.2.2 Calipers
• 21.2.3 Micrometers
• 21.2.4 Gauge blocks (slip gauges) and length bars
• 21.2.5 Height and depth measurement
• 21.2.6 Calibration of dimension measurements
• 21.3 Angle measurement
• 21.3.1 Calibration
• 21.4 Surface flatness measurement
• 21.4.1 Calibration of variation gauge
• 21.5 Volume measurement
• 21.5.1 Calibration of volume measurements
• 21.6 Viscosity measurement
• 21.6.1 Viscosity calibration
• 21.7 Moisture measurement
• 21.7.1 Industrial moisture measurement techniques
• Electrical methods
• Neutron moderation
• Low-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance
• Optical methods
• Ultrasonic methods
• Change in mechanical properties
• 21.7.2 Laboratory techniques for moisture measurement
• Water separation
• Gravimetric methods
• Phase-change methods
• Equilibrium relative humidity measurement
• 21.7.3 Humidity measurement
• The electrical hygrometer
• The psychrometer (wet and dry bulb hygrometer)
• Dew point meter
• Microelectromechanical system (MEMS)relative humidity sensor
• 21.7.4 Calibration of moisture and humidity measurements
• 21.8 Sound measurement
• 21.8.1 Calibration of sound meters
• 21.9 pH measurement
• 21.9.1 pH calibration
• 21.10 Gas sensing and analysis
• 21.10.1 Calibration of gas sensors
• 21.11 Summary
• 21.12 Problems
• 1 – Imperial–metric–SI conversion tables
• Length
• Area
• Second moment of area
• Volume
• Density
• Mass
• Force
• Torque (moment of force)
• Inertia
• Pressure
• Additional conversion factors
• Energy, work, heat
• Additional conversion factors
• Power
• Velocity
• Acceleration
• Mass flow rate
• Volume flow rate
• Specific energy (heat per unit volume)
• Dynamic viscosity
• Kinematic viscosity
• 2 – Thévenin’s theorem
• References
• 3 – Thermocouple tables
• 4 – Using mathematical tables
• Interpolation
• Index
• A
• B
• C
• D
• E
• F
• G
• H
• I
• J
• K
• L
• M
• N
• O
• P
• Q
• R
• S
• T
• U
• V
• W
• X
• Z