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• Contents
• Figures
• Figure 1.1 Tourists in the remote Purnululu National Park, Western Australia, a World Heritage Are
• Figure 1.2 The tourism system
• Figure 1.3 Characteristics of natural area tourism
• Figure 1.4 Management and scales of tourism: natural area tourism can encompass the whole spectrum
• Figure 1.5 Nine Bend River in the Mount Wuyi World Heritage Site, Fujian Province, China. The area
• Figure 1.6 Whale shark watching, Exmouth, Western Australia (Photo Tourism WA)
• Figure 1.7 Geotourism attraction, Granite Skywalk, Castle Rock, Porongurup National Park, Western
• Figure 1.8 – Tourist walkway, Langkawi Global Geopark, Malaysia
• Figure 1.9 Geotourists witnessing a volcanic eruption on Fernandina Island, Galapagos, Ecuador, in
• Figure 2.1 Levels of organisation within the science of ecology
• Figure 2.2 Components of an ecosystem
• Figure 2.3 Interaction of the biotic components in ecosystems
• Figure 2.4 Moisture largely determines the development of terrestrial vegetation in the tropical c
• Figure 2.5 Generalised models of nutrient cycling (modified from Etherington, 1975; and Krebs, 198
• Figure 2.6 Simplified marine ecosystem food chain and ecological pyramid
• Figure 2.7 Example of a food web: kelp in marine ecosystems (Source of data: Two Oceans Aquarium,
• Figure 2.8 Conceptual model of ecosystem processes
• Figure 2.9 Conceptual diagram of the hydrological cycle (local and global scale)
• Figure 2.10 The potential role of the grey wolf as a keystone predator in Yellowstone National Par
• Figure 2.11 Factors affecting the establishment of woodland or grassland communities in the Sereng
• Figure 2.12 A comparison of patches and corridors in the landscape matrix. (A) Agricultural matrix
• Figure 2.13 Location map of important nature-based tourism destinations referred to in this chapte
• Figure 2.14 Predicted ecological impact caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi infection in the Stirling
• Figure 2.15 Ecological function of roads (After Foreman, 1995)
• Figure 2.16 The coral polyp ingests a dinoflagellate, which then becomes incorporated into the gas
• Figure 2.17 Ecological zones of a fringing coral reef
• Figure 2.18 Global distribution of tropical rainforests
• Figure 2.19 Different layers of vegetation which form the structure of a tropical rainforest
• Figure 2.20 Canopy walkway, Taman Negara, Malaysia (Photo: David Newsome)
• Figure 2.21 Kruger National Park, South Africa
• Figure 2.22 Rural landscape in Leicestershire, England. The landscape consists of many patches and
• Figure 2.23 Potential ecological implications of stress caused by disturbance to wild animals
• Figure 2.24 Ways in which tourists can impact on the natural feeding activities of wildlife
• Figure 3.1 Valley leading to the Jostedalen ice cap and Tunsbergdalsbreen glacier, Norway. Few peo
• Figure 3.2 Location map of important nature-based tourism destinations referred to in this chapter
• Figure 3.3 Signs informing visitors of prohibitive activities at the Boulders Penguin Colony near
• Figure 3.4 Change in campsite impact parameters under low to moderate levels of annual visitation,
• Figure 3.5 The proposed relationship between frequency of use and amount of disturbance, assuming
• Figure 3.6 The hierarchy among environmental parameters with changing amounts of use (Derived from
• Figure 3.7 Impacts of trampling on vegetation and soils
• Figure 3.8 Result of a field experiment to quantify the environmental impact of horse riding in D
• Figure 3.9 Resistance of different plant communities to trampling (Compiled by Liddle, 1997)
• Figure 3.10 Change in relative biomass for different species of plant according to intensity of tr
• Figure 3.11 Change in soil depth from the baseline micro-topography averaged across the first 5–
• Figure 3.12 Mean penetrometry results for campsites in Warren National Park, Western Australia (So
• Figure 3.13 Components of the universal soil loss equation (equation developed by Wischmeir & Smit
• Figure 3.14 Severe trail erosion in Bako National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Photo David Newsome)
• Figure 3.15 A comparison of degradation (m/km) between assessed trails in coastal south-western Au
• Figure 3.16 Trail surface showing compaction and linear rutting caused by mountain bikes, John For
• Figure 3.17 Elevated cycle-way constructed off-trail for the purpose of mountain biking activity,
• Figure 3.18 Impact of off-road vehicles on soils
• Figure 3.19 Environmental impacts of off-road vehicles in semi-arid and arid ecosystems (Based on
• Figure 3.20 Environmental impacts of off-road vehicles on beach environments
• Figure 3.21 Boat trip from Sukau Rainforest Lodge with wildlife observation and the engine cut (Ph
• Figure 3.22 Conceptual diagram of the effects of sewage pollution in freshwater ecosystems
• Figure 3.23 Campsite impacts on soils and ultimate effects on vegetation
• Figure 3.24 Ecological significance of coarse woody debris in forested ecosystems
• Figure 3.25 Methodology applied in assessing the loss of coarse woody debris from campsites in War
• Figure 3.26 Relative abundance of coarse woody debris at campsites in Warren National Park, Wester
• Figure 3.27 Bank erosion: ‘scalloping’, root exposure and loss of riparian vegetation adjacent
• Figure 3.28 Bat observation platform Mulu National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia (Photo David Newsome)
• Figure 3.29 Conceptual diagram of cave habitats
• Figure 3.30 Information panel at Lesueur National Park, Western Australia, an international wildfl
• Figure 3.31 Extensive management presence and overdevelopment at Yehliu Geopark in Taiwan. Note th
• Figure 3.32 Potential impacts from non-natural patches
• Figure 4.1 A generic planning process
• Figure 4.2 Possible stakeholders of natural area tourism (Derived from Hall & McArthur, 1998; Saut
• Figure 4.3 Ladder of citizen participation (Derived from Arnstein, 1969)
• Figure 4.4 Chronological relationship between the recreation/tourism planning frameworks (Derived
• Figure 4.5 The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (Derived from Clark & Stankey, 1979)
• Figure 4.6 Process for applying the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum planning framework (Derived fr
• Figure 4.7 Location map of sites referred to in this chapter
• Figure 4.8 Process for applying the Limits of Acceptable Change planning framework (Derived from S
• Figure 4.9 Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex, USA (Photo: Steve McCool)
• Figure 4.10 Process for applying the Visitor Impact Management planning framework (Derived from Gr
• Figure 4.11 Process for applying the Tourism Optimisation Management Model (Derived from Manadis R
• Figure 4.12 Using the Tourism Optimisation Management Model to take management action (Derived fro
• Figure 4.13 The Visitor Activity Management Process as part of national park management (Derived f
• Figure 4.14 Process for applying the Visitor Activity Management Process (Derived from Nilsen & Ta
• Figure 4.15 Process for applying the Visitor Experience and Resource Protection planning framework
• Figure 5.1 Location map of sites referred to in this chapter
• Figure 5.2 Zoning of international biosphere reserves (Derived from Batisse, 1982)
• Figure 5.3 Common ways of classifying approaches to managing visitors to natural areas (Derived fr
• Figure 5.4 Walking track in Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage site, Australia (Photo: Parks and
• Figure 5.5 Factors influencing the choice of management actions by managers
• Figure 5.6  Aboriginal shelter and interpretation, Nourlangie, Kakadu National Park (Photo: S. Moo
• Figure 5.7 Environmental management system model (Derived from Standards Australia, 1997)
• Figure 6.1 The education–knowledge–awareness relationship embodied within interpretation
• Figure 6.2 Learning about skulls and teeth is best achieved if visual aids and specimens are avail
• Figure 6.3 Location map of important nature-based tourism destinations referred to in this chapter
• Figure 6.4 Stationary terminal in a visitor centre for a network of protected areas in the cultura
• Figure 6.5 The talking pen and interactive map developed by staff at the Hon Kong Geopark in order
• Figure 6.6 Interactive landscape model in a geo-interpretive centre, Grand Canyon National Park, U
• Figure 6.7 Information panel indicating the site, walk trails and main features of the Mount Matil
• Figure 6.8 Interpretive panel located at a lookout at the Shark Bay World Heritage site, Western A
• Figure 6.9 Orang-utan feeding platform at Bukit Lawang, Sumatra, Indonesia. Orang-utans frequently
• Figure 7.1 Location map of sites referred to in this chapter
• Figure 7.2 Variable radial transect method for measuring site area (Derived from Marion, 1991)
• Figure 7.3  Geometric figure method for measuring site area (Derived from Marion, 1991)
• Figure 7.4 Method for measuring trail cross-sectional area to determine trail erosion (Derived fro
• Figure 7.5 Importance–performance grid (Derived from Oh, 2001)
• Figure 8.1 Tsavo West National Park, Kenya. While the tourists come to see the ‘big game’ (wil
• Figure 8.2 Stuðlaberg (the formation of basaltic columns) at Reynisstaðarfjara, eastern Iceland.
• Figure 8.3 Sample views of a geological electronic tour guide, Sultanate of Oman.l The system is c
• Figure 8.4 Tour group planting trees on the banks of the Kinabatangaan River, Sabah, Malaysian Bor
• Tables
• Table 2.1 The major types of ecosystem
• Table 2.2 Comparison of some important ecological characteristics of selected ecosystems
• Table 2.3 Selected nature based tourism destinations in tropical East Asia
• Table 3.1 Examples of significant non-motorised outdoor recreational demand and activities taking
• Table 3.2 Ten criteria for determining the significance of biophysical impacts
• Table 3.3 Negative effects of road networks on wildlife
• Table 3.4 Highway mortality of large carnivores in the Bow River Valley, Alberta, 1985–95
• Table 3.5 Management context and evaluation of various strategies to reduce road kill in Australia
• Table 3.6 Comparison of actual and potential environmental impacts arising from three important re
• Table 3.7 Environmental impacts of infrastructure and support facilities in the development of touri
• Table 3.8 Impacts of littering: Items commonly found along walk trails, at campsites and at day-us
• Table 3.9 Ecological implications of visitor activities in and around aquatic ecosystems
• Table 3.10 Mean width, depth, distance and erosion of main riverbank access trails from campsites
• Table 3.11 Recreational impacts on coastal marine ecosystems and water-edge environments
• Table 3.13 Impacts of trampling on coral reef at the Tower site, Sharm el Sheikh, Egypt
• Table 3.14 Impacts of trampling and snorkelling on coral reef at the Ras Umm Sidd site, Sharm el S
• Table 3.15 Examples wildlife sighting opportunities and activities
• Table 3.16 An approach to understanding human interest in wildlife
• Table 3.17 Examples of tourism centred on wildflowers and specific types of vegetation
• Table 3.18 Threats and obstacles to conservation of natural areas and wildlife, protected areas an
• Table 4.1 Stakeholder involvement techniques in visitor planning for natural areas
• Table 4.2 Recreation opportunity classes
• Table 4.3 Choosing the ‘best’ recreation/tourism planning framework
• Table 5.1 IUCN protected area categories
• Table 5.2 Governance models for protected areas
• Table 5.3 Ways of classifying approaches to managing visitors to natural areas
• Table 5.4 Methods for managing human wastes in natural areas
• Table 5.5 Ways of allocating visitor access to natural areas
• Table 5.6 Nature and extent of restrictions on visitor use in natural areas
• Table 5.7 Principles of the Leave No Trace low-impact education programme
• Table 6.1 Role of interpretation in fostering appropriate and sustainable tourism at natural attra
• Table 6.2 Summary of major interpretation techniques
• Table 7.1 Steps in a monitoring programme for resource impacts and visitors in natural areas
• Table 7.2 Summary of campsite monitoring techniques
• Table 7.3 Condition classes for monitoring campsites in natural areas
• Table 7.4 Indicators commonly used in multiple indicator ratings systems
• Table 7.5 Indicators commonly used in multiple indicator measurement systems
• Table 7.6 Summary of trail monitoring techniques (organised according to Marion et al., 2011)
• Table 7.7 Condition classes for monitoring informal walk trails in natural areas
• Table 7.8 Rating scale for monitoring gravel roads in natural areas
• Table 7.9 Summary of different areas of focus for visitor monitoring, monitoring techniques and ma
• Table 7.10 Summary of visitor monitoring techniques
• Table 7.11 Visitor (object) counting and tracking technologies
• Table 7.12 Standards for social and biophysical indicators for the Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex
• Table 7.13 Headline indicators from a global PAME assessment conducted by Leverington et al. (2010
• Boxes
• Box 1.1 Naturalness, ecological integrity and natural experiences
• Box 1.2 Definition and classification of ‘tourists’
• Box 1.3 Case study of ecotourism development: An industry association – Ecotourism Australia
• Box 1.4 Geotourism – Galapagos Islands, Ecuador
• Box 1.5 Case study: Sustainable tourism – Kumul Lodge, Papua New Guinea
• Box 2.1 Relation of organisms to their environment: Habitat and niche
• Box 2.2 Case study: The spread of an introduced pathogen through tourism corridors in the Stirling
• Box 2.3 The Kruger National Park in the landscape matrix
• Box 3.1 Assessing the erosion risk in the Drakensberg Mountains, South Africa
• Box 3.2 Factors influencing the degree of impact caused by off-road vehicles
• Box 3.3 Case study: Sukau Rainforest Lodge, a tour and accommodation facility situated on the bank
• Box 3.4 Assessing the loss of coarse woody debris (CWD) around campsites in Warren National Park,
• Box 4.1 Applying ROS to Mount Cole Forest, Victoria, Australia
• Box 4.2 Using ROS to classify the recreation opportunities offered by Thailand’s national parks
• Box 4.3 Applying LAC to the Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex, Montana, USA
• Box 4.4 Applying LAC to Koh Chang National Marine Park, Thailand
• Box 4.5 Applying VIM to the Jenolan Caves Reserve, New South Wales, Australia
• Box 4.6 Applying TOMM to Kangaroo Island, South Australia, Australia
• Box 5.1 Government-managed protected areas in Australia
• Box 5.2 Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve and natural area tourism
• Box 5.3 National park and marine park zoning in Western Australia
• Box 5.4 Management to improve trail conditions: Examples from England and Australia
• Box 5.5 Deciding when to install toilets in natural areas
• Box 5.6 Locating and managing facilities in coastal settings: Fraser Island World Heritage site, A
• Box 5.7 Regulating visitor use: Michaelmas Cay and Reef, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australia
• Box 5.8 A combined approach to management: Kakadu National Park, northern Australia
• Box 5.9 Antarctica: Guidelines for the conduct of tourism and tourists
• Box 5.10 Environmental management systems for ski resorts in the Australian Alps
• Box 5.11 Environmental best practice: A toolkit prepared for the Canadian tourism industry
• Box 6.1 Definitions of interpretation
• Box 6.2 Scottish Seabird Centre
• Box 6.3 Case study: Electronic interpretation
• Box 6.4 Bird watching at Rutland Water Nature Reserve, England
• Box 6.5 Role of the tour guide in natural area tourism
• Box 6.6 Buchu Bushcamp: Interpreting the South African fynbos vegetation
• Box 7.1 Applying a multiple indicator ratings system to monitoring campsites in Kibale National Pa
• Box 7.2 A combined system for monitoring campsites in Great Smoky Mountains National Park, USA
• Box 7.3 A rapid monitoring system for trails in Great Smoky Mountains National Park, USA
• Box 7.4 Lidar as a remote sensing technique for trail inventory and monitoring
• Box 7.5 Using questionnaires to monitor visitors to Bako National Park, Borneo
• Box 7.6 Using a questionnaire to identify indicators and standards for Nuyts Wilderness Area, West
• Box 7.7 Determining visitor satisfaction at Yanchep National Park, Western Australia, using a visi
• Box 7.8 Using a task force to identify indicators and standards for Bob Marshall Wilderness Comple
• Box 7.9 State of the Parks reporting in New South Wales, Australia, using a protected area managem
• Box 7.10 Developing an integrated monitoring programme for Warren National Park, Western Australia
• Acknowledgements
• Preface
• 1 Introduction
• Tourism and the Natural Environment
• Natural Areas as a Focus for Tourism
• Nature and Naturalness
• Human Approaches to Nature
• Types of Natural Area
• Tourism and Tourists
• Defining Sustainable Tourism
• Natural Area Tourism in Context
• The Spectrum of Natural Area Tourism
• Key Issues for Natural Area Tourism in the 21st Century
• Outline of the Book
• 2 The Ecological Perspective
• Introduction
• An Introduction to Ecosystems and Landscapes
• Ecological Characteristics and Tourism Activity in Different Types of Ecosystem
• Wildlife as a Specific Component of Ecosystems
• Conclusion
• 3 Environmental Impacts
• Introduction
• Sources of Impact
• Trampling
• Access Roads and Trails
• Use of Built Facilities and Camping Areas
• Use of Water Edges
• Recreation and Tourism in Mountainous Areas
• Recreation and Tourism in and around Caves
• The Observation of Wildlife
• Wildflower Tourism
• Recreation and Tourism Focused on Sites of Geological Interest
• Social Impacts
• The Impacts of Natural Area Tourism in the Context of Wider Environmental Issues
• Conclusion
• 4 Visitor Planning
• Introduction
• Stakeholder Involvement in Visitor Planning
• Planning Concepts
• Recreation/Tourism Planning Frameworks
• Conclusion
• 5 Management Strategies and Actions
• Introduction
• Creating Protected Areas
• Governance and Joint Management
• Zoning
• Site Management Actions
• Visitor Management Actions
• Choosing Management Actions
• Managing the Tourism Industry
• Conclusion
• 6 Interpretation for Nature Tourism
• Introduction
• Principles
• Stages of the Interpretive Experience
• Application of Interpretation
• Techniques Used in the Delivery of Interpretation
• The Role and Effectiveness of Interpretation
• Enhancing and Valuing the Role of the Tour Guide: Some Important Issues
• The Tour Operator as a Role Model
• Views on the Effectiveness of Interpretation
• Conclusion
• 7 Monitoring
• Introduction
• Definition
• Reasons for Monitoring
• Principles of Monitoring
• Developing a Monitoring Programme
• Monitoring Visitor Impacts on Natural Areas
• Monitoring Visitors to Natural Areas
• System-Wide and Integrated Approaches
• Conclusion
• 8 Conclusion
• Introduction
• The Ecological Underpinnings of Natural Area Tourism
• Tourism’s Impacts on Natural Areas
• Appropriate Planning and Management Strategies
• Monitoring – The On-going Commitment to Natural Area Management
• Interpretation – The Bridge Between Visitation and Connection
• Big Picture Issues – Sustainability and Climate Change
• Emerging Research Trends
• References
• Index