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• Cover
• Halftitle Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Preface
• User’s Guide
• Acknowledgments
• Path of Discovery Authors
• Images
• Brief Contents
• Expanded Contents
• List of Boxes
• Chapter One Neuroscience: Past, Present, and Future
• Introduction
• The Origins of Neuroscience
• Views of the Brain in Ancient Greece
• Views of the Brain During the Roman Empire
• Views of the Brain from the Renaissance to the Nineteenth Century
• Nineteenth-Century Views of the Brain
• Nerves as Wires
• Localization of Specific Functions to Different Parts of the Brain
• The Evolution of Nervous Systems
• The Neuron: The Basic Functional Unit of the Brain
• Neuroscience Today
• Levels of Analysis
• Molecular Neuroscience
• Cellular Neuroscience
• Systems Neuroscience
• Behavioral Neuroscience
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Neuroscientists
• The Scientific Process
• Observation
• Replication
• Interpretation
• Verification
• The Use of Animals in Neuroscience Research
• The Animals
• Animal Welfare
• Animal Rights
• The Cost of Ignorance: Nervous System Disorders
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Two Neurons and Glia
• Introduction
• The Neuron Doctrine
• The Golgi Stain
• Cajal’s Contribution
• Box 2.1 Of Special Interest: Advances in Microscopy
• The Prototypical Neuron
• The Soma
• The Nucleus
• Neuronal Genes, Genetic Variation, and Genetic Engineering
• Box 2.2 Brain Food: Expressing One’s Mind in the Post-Genomic Era
• Box 2.3 Path of Discovery: Gene Targeting in Mice, by Mario Capecchi
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Golgi Apparatus
• The Mitochondrion
• The Neuronal Membrane
• The Cytoskeleton
• Microtubules
• Box 2.4 Of Special Interest: Alzheimer’s Disease and the Neuronal Cytoskeleton
• Microfilaments
• Neurofilaments
• The Axon
• The Axon Terminal
• The Synapse
• Axoplasmic Transport
• Box 2.5 Of Special Interest: Hitching a Ride with Retrograde Transport
• Dendrites
• Box 2.6 Of Special Interest: Intellectual Disability and Dendritic Spines
• Classifying Neurons
• Classification Based on Neuronal Structure
• Number of Neurites
• Dendrites
• Connections
• Axon Length
• Classification Based on Gene Expression
• Box 2.7 Brain Food: Understanding Neuronal Structure and Function with Incredible Cre
• Glia
• Astrocytes
• Myelinating Glia
• Other Non-Neuronal Cells
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Three The Neuronal Membrane at Rest
• Introduction
• The Cast of Chemicals
• Cytosol and Extracellular Fluid
• Water
• Ions
• The Phospholipid Membrane
• Protein
• Protein Structure
• Channel Proteins
• Ion Pumps
• The Movement of Ions
• Diffusion
• Box 3.1 Brain Food: A Review of Moles and Molarity
• Electricity
• The Ionic Basis of The Resting Membrane Potential
• Equilibrium Potentials
• Box 3.2 Brain Food: The Nernst Equation
• The Distribution of Ions Across the Membrane
• Relative Ion Permeabilities of the Membrane at Rest
• Box 3.3 Brain Food: The Goldman Equation
• The Wide World of Potassium Channels
• Box 3.4 Path of Discovery: Feeling Around Inside Ion Channels in the Dark, by Chris Miller
• The Importance of Regulating the External Potassium Concentration
• Box 3.5 Of Special Interest: Death by Lethal Injection
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Four The Action Potential
• Introduction
• Properties of The Action Potential
• The Ups and Downs of an Action Potential
• Box 4.1 Brain Food: Methods of Recording Action Potentials
• The Generation of an Action Potential
• The Generation of Multiple Action Potentials
• Optogenetics: Controlling Neural Activity with Light
• Box 4.2 Path of Discovery: The Discovery of the Channelrhodopsins, by Georg Nagel
• The Action Potential, In Theory
• Membrane Currents and Conductances
• The Ins and Outs of an Action Potential
• The Action Potential, In Reality
• The Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel
• Sodium Channel Structure
• Functional Properties of the Sodium Channel
• Box 4.3 Brain Food: The Patch-Clamp Method
• The Effects of Toxins on the Sodium Channel
• Voltage-Gated Potassium Channels
• Putting the Pieces Together
• Action Potential Conduction
• Factors Influencing Conduction Velocity
• Box 4.4 Of Special Interest: Local Anesthesia
• Myelin and Saltatory Conduction
• Box 4.5 Of Special Interest: Multiple Sclerosis, a Demyelinating Disease
• Action Potentials, Axons, and Dendrites
• Box 4.6 Of Special Interest: The Eclectic Electric Behavior of Neurons
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Five Synaptic Transmission
• Introduction
• Box 5.1 Of Special Interest: Otto Loewi’s Dream
• Types Of synapses
• Electrical Synapses
• Chemical Synapses
• CNS Chemical Synapses
• Box 5.2 Path of Discovery: For the Love of Dendritic Spines, by Kristen M. Harris
• The Neuromuscular Junction
• Principles of Chemical Synaptic Transmission
• Neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitter Synthesis and Storage
• Neurotransmitter Release
• Box 5.3 Brain Food: How to Snare a Vesicle
• Neurotransmitter Receptors and Effectors
• Transmitter-Gated Ion Channels
• Box 5.4 Brain Food: Reversal Potentials
• G-Protein-Coupled Receptors
• Autoreceptors
• Neurotransmitter Recovery and Degradation
• Neuropharmacology
• Box 5.5 Of Special Interest: Bacteria, Spiders, Snakes, and People
• Principles of Synaptic Integration
• The Integration of EPSPs
• Quantal Analysis of EPSPs
• EPSP Summation
• The Contribution of Dendritic Properties to Synaptic Integration
• Dendritic Cable Properties
• Excitable Dendrites
• Inhibition
• Box 5.6 Of Special Interest: Startling Mutations and Poisons
• IPSPs and Shunting Inhibition
• The Geometry of Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses
• Modulation
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Six Neurotransmitter Systems
• Introduction
• Studying Neurotransmitter Systems
• Localization of Transmitters and Transmitter-Synthesizing Enzymes
• Immunocytochemistry
• In Situ Hybridization
• Studying Transmitter Release
• Studying Synaptic Mimicry
• Studying Receptors
• Neuropharmacological Analysis
• Ligand-Binding Methods
• Box 6.1 Path of Discovery: Finding Opiate Receptors, by Solomon H. Snyder
• Molecular Analysis
• Neurotransmitter Chemistry
• Cholinergic Neurons
• Box 6.2 Brain Food: Pumping Ions and Transmitters
• Catecholaminergic Neurons
• Serotonergic Neurons
• Amino Acidergic Neurons
• Other Neurotransmitter Candidates and Intercellular Messengers
• Box 6.3 Of Special Interest: This Is Your Brain on Endocannabinoids
• Transmitter-Gated Channels
• The Basic Structure of Transmitter-Gated Channels
• Amino Acid-Gated Channels
• Glutamate-Gated Channels
• Box 6.4 Of Special Interest: Exciting Poisons: Too Much of a Good Thing
• GABA-Gated and Glycine-Gated Channels
• G-Protein-Coupled Receptors and Effectors
• The Basic Structure of G-Protein-Coupled Receptors
• The Ubiquitous G-Proteins
• G-Protein-Coupled Effector Systems
• The Shortcut Pathway
• Second Messenger Cascades
• Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation
• The Function of Signal Cascades
• Divergence and Convergence in Neurotransmitter Systems
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Seven The Structure of the Nervous System
• Introduction
• Gross Organization of the Mammalian Nervous System
• Anatomical References
• The Central Nervous System
• The Cerebrum
• The Cerebellum
• The Brain Stem
• The Spinal Cord
• The Peripheral Nervous System
• The Somatic PNS
• The Visceral PNS
• Afferent and Efferent Axons
• The Cranial Nerves
• The Meninges
• The Ventricular System
• Box 7.1 Of Special Interest: Water on the Brain
• New Views of the Brain
• Imaging the Structure of the Living Brain
• Box 7.2 Brain Food: Magnetic Resonance Imaging
• Functional Brain Imaging
• Box 7.3 Brain Food: PET and fMRI
• Understanding Cns Structure Through Development
• Formation of the Neural Tube
• Box 7.4 Of Special Interest: Nutrition and the Neural Tube
• Three Primary Brain Vesicles
• Differentiation of the Forebrain
• Differentiation of the Telencephalon and Diencephalon
• Forebrain Structure-Function Relationships
• Differentiation of the Midbrain
• Midbrain Structure-Function Relationships
• Differentiation of the Hindbrain
• Hindbrain Structure-Function Relationships
• Differentiation of the Spinal Cord
• Spinal Cord Structure-Function Relationships
• Putting the Pieces Together
• Special Features of the Human CNS
• A Guide to The Cerebral Cortex
• Types of Cerebral Cortex
• Areas of Neocortex
• Neocortical Evolution and Structure-Function Relationships
• Box 7.5 Path of Discovery: Connecting with the Connectome, by Sebastian Seung
• Concluding Remarks
• Appendix: An Illustrated Guide to Human Neuroanatomy
• Chapter Eight The Chemical Senses
• Introduction
• Taste
• The Basic Tastes
• Box 8.1 Of Special Interest: Strange Tastes: Fat, Starch, Carbonation, Calcium, Water?
• The Organs of Taste
• Taste Receptor Cells
• Mechanisms of Taste Transduction
• Saltiness
• Sourness
• Bitterness
• Sweetness
• Umami (Amino Acids)
• Central Taste Pathways
• Box 8.2 Of Special Interest: Memories of a Very Bad Meal
• The Neural Coding of Taste
• Smell
• Box 8.3 Of Special Interest: Human Pheromones?
• The Organs of Smell
• Olfactory Receptor Neurons
• Olfactory Transduction
• Olfactory Receptor Proteins
• cAMP-Gated Channels
• Box 8.4 Path of Discovery: Channels of Vision and Smell, by Geoffrey Gold
• Central Olfactory Pathways
• Spatial and Temporal Representations of Olfactory Information
• Olfactory Population Coding
• Olfactory Maps
• Temporal Coding in the Olfactory System
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Nine The Eye
• Introduction
• Properties of Light
• Light
• Optics
• The Structure of the Eye
• Gross Anatomy of the Eye
• Ophthalmoscopic Appearance of the Eye
• Box 9.1 Of Special Interest: Demonstrating the Blind Regions of Your Eye
• Cross-Sectional Anatomy of the Eye
• Box 9.2 Of Special Interest: Eye Disorders
• Image Formation By the Eye
• Refraction by the Cornea
• Accommodation by the Lens
• Box 9.3 Of Special Interest: Vision Correction
• The Pupillary Light Reflex
• The Visual Field
• Visual Acuity
• Microscopic Anatomy of the Retina
• The Laminar Organization of the Retina
• Photoreceptor Structure
• Box 9.4 Path of Discovery: Seeing Through the Photoreceptor Mosaic, by David Williams
• Regional Differences in Retinal Structure and Their Visual Consequences
• Phototransduction
• Phototransduction in Rods
• Phototransduction in Cones
• Color Perception
• Box 9.5 Of Special Interest: The Genetics of Color Vision
• Dark and Light Adaptation
• Calcium’s Role in Light Adaptation
• Local Adaptation of Dark, Light, and Color
• Retinal Processing and Output
• The Receptive Field
• Bipolar Cell Receptive Fields
• Ganglion Cell Receptive Fields
• Structure-Function Relationships
• Color-Opponent Ganglion Cells
• Ganglion Cell Photoreceptors
• Parallel Processing
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Ten The Central Visual System
• Introduction
• The Retinofugal Projection
• The Optic Nerve, Optic Chiasm, and Optic Tract
• Right and Left Visual Hemifields
• Targets of the Optic Tract
• Box 10.1 Of Special Interest: David and Goliath
• Nonthalamic Targets of the Optic Tract
• The Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
• The Segregation of Input by Eye and by Ganglion Cell Type
• Receptive Fields
• Nonretinal Inputs to the LGN
• Anatomy of The Striate Cortex
• Retinotopy
• Lamination of the Striate Cortex
• The Cells of Different Layers
• Inputs and Outputs of the Striate Cortex
• Innervation of Other Cortical Layers from Layer IVC
• Ocular Dominance Columns
• Striate Cortex Outputs
• Cytochrome Oxidase Blobs
• Physiology of the Striate Cortex
• Receptive Fields
• Binocularity
• Orientation Selectivity
• Box 10.2 Brain Food: Cortical Organization Revealed by Optical and Calcium Imaging
• Direction Selectivity
• Simple and Complex Receptive Fields
• Blob Receptive Fields
• Parallel Pathways and Cortical Modules
• Parallel Pathways
• Cortical Modules
• Beyond the Striate Cortex
• The Dorsal Stream
• Area MT
• Dorsal Areas and Motion Processing
• The Ventral Stream
• Area V4
• Area IT
• Box 10.3 Path of Discovery: Finding Faces in the Brain, by Nancy Kanwisher
• From Single Neurons to Perception
• Box 10.4 Of Special Interest: The Magic of Seeing in 3D
• Receptive Field Hierarchy and Perception
• Parallel Processing and Perception
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Eleven The Auditory and Vestibular Systems
• Introduction
• The Nature of Sound
• Box 11.1 Of Special Interest: Ultrasound and Infrasound
• The Structure of the Auditory System
• The Middle Ear
• Components of the Middle Ear
• Sound Force Amplification by the Ossicles
• The Attenuation Reflex
• The Inner Ear
• Anatomy of the Cochlea
• Physiology of the Cochlea
• The Response of the Basilar Membrane to Sound
• The Organ of Corti and Associated Structures
• Box 11.2 Of Special Interest: The Deaf Shall Hear: Cochlear Implants
• Transduction by Hair Cells
• Hair Cells and the Axons of the Auditory Nerve
• Amplification by Outer Hair Cells
• Box 11.3 Of Special Interest: Hearing with Noisy Ears
• Central Auditory Processes
• The Anatomy of Auditory Pathways
• Response Properties of Neurons in the Auditory Pathway
• Encoding Sound Intensity and Frequency
• Stimulus Intensity
• Stimulus Frequency, Tonotopy, and Phase Locking
• Tonotopy
• Phase Locking
• Box 11.4 Path of Discovery: Capturing the Beat, by Donata Oertel
• Mechanisms of Sound Localization
• Localization of Sound in the Horizontal Plane
• The Sensitivity of Binaural Neurons to Sound Location
• Localization of Sound in the Vertical Plane
• Auditory Cortex
• Neuronal Response Properties
• Box 11.5 Of Special Interest: How Does Auditory Cortex Work? Ask a Specialist
• The Effects of Auditory Cortical Lesions and Ablation
• Box 11.6 Of Special Interest: Auditory Disorders and Their Treatments
• The Vestibular System
• The Vestibular Labyrinth
• The Otolith Organs
• The Semicircular Canals
• Central Vestibular Pathways and Vestibular Reflexes
• The Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex (VOR)
• Vestibular Pathology
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Twelve The Somatic Sensory System
• Introduction
• Touch
• Mechanoreceptors of the Skin
• Vibration and the Pacinian Corpuscle
• Mechanosensitive Ion Channels
• Two-Point Discrimination
• Primary Afferent Axons
• The Spinal Cord
• Segmental Organization of the Spinal Cord
• Box 12.1 Of Special Interest: Herpes, Shingles, and Dermatomes
• Sensory Organization of the Spinal Cord
• The Dorsal Column–Medial Lemniscal Pathway
• Box 12.2 Brain Food: Lateral Inhibition
• The Trigeminal Touch Pathway
• Somatosensory Cortex
• Cortical Somatotopy
• Box 12.3 Path of Discovery: Cortical Barrels, by Thomas Woolsey
• Cortical Map Plasticity
• The Posterior Parietal Cortex
• Pain
• Box 12.4 Of Special Interest: The Misery of Life Without Pain
• Nociceptors and the Transduction of Painful Stimuli
• Types of Nociceptors
• Box 12.5 Of Special Interest: Hot and Spicy
• Hyperalgesia and Inflammation
• Itch
• Primary Afferents and Spinal Mechanisms
• Ascending Pain Pathways
• The Spinothalamic Pain Pathway
• The Trigeminal Pain Pathway
• The Thalamus and Cortex
• The Regulation of Pain
• Afferent Regulation
• Descending Regulation
• The Endogenous Opioids
• Box 12.6 Of Special Interest: Pain and the Placebo Effect
• Temperature
• Thermoreceptors
• The Temperature Pathway
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Thirteen Spinal Control of Movement
• Introduction
• The Somatic Motor System
• The Lower Motor Neuron
• The Segmental Organization of Lower Motor Neurons
• Alpha Motor Neurons
• Graded Control of Muscle Contraction by Alpha Motor Neurons
• Inputs to Alpha Motor Neurons
• Types of Motor Units
• Neuromuscular Matchmaking
• Box 13.1 Of Special Interest: ALS: Glutamate, Genes, and Gehrig
• Excitation–Contraction Coupling
• Box 13.2 Of Special Interest: Myasthenia Gravis
• Muscle Fiber Structure
• The Molecular Basis of Muscle Contraction
• Box 13.3 Of Special Interest: Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
• Spinal Control of Motor Units
• Proprioception from Muscle Spindles
• The Stretch Reflex
• Box 13.4 Path of Discovery: Nerve Regeneration Does Not Ensure Full Recovery, by Timothy C. Cope
• Gamma Motor Neurons
• Proprioception from Golgi Tendon Organs
• Proprioception from the Joints
• Spinal Interneurons
• Inhibitory Input
• Excitatory Input
• The Generation of Spinal Motor Programs for Walking
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Fourteen Brain Control of Movement
• Introduction
• Descending Spinal Tracts
• The Lateral Pathways
• The Effects of Lateral Pathway Lesions
• Box 14.1 Of Special Interest: Paresis, Paralysis, Spasticity, and Babinski
• The Ventromedial Pathways
• The Vestibulospinal Tracts
• The Tectospinal Tract
• The Pontine and Medullary Reticulospinal Tracts
• The Planning of Movement by the Cerebral Cortex
• Motor Cortex
• The Contributions of Posterior Parietal and Prefrontal Cortex
• Neuronal Correlates of Motor Planning
• Box 14.2 Of Special Interest: Behavioral Neurophysiology
• Mirror Neurons
• The Basal Ganglia
• Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia
• Direct and Indirect Pathways through the Basal Ganglia
• Basal Ganglia Disorders
• Box 14.3 Of Special Interest: Do Neurons in Diseased Basal Ganglia Commit Suicide?
• Box 14.4 Of Special Interest: Destruction and Stimulation: Useful Therapies for Brain Disorders
• The Initiation of Movement by Primary Motor Cortex
• The Input–Output Organization of M1
• The Coding of Movement in M1
• Box 14.5 Path of Discovery: Distributed Coding in the Superior Colliculus, by James T. McIlwain
• The Malleable Motor Map
• The Cerebellum
• Box 14.6 Of Special Interest: Involuntary Movements—Normal and Abnormal
• Anatomy of the Cerebellum
• The Motor Loop through the Lateral Cerebellum
• Programming the Cerebellum
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Fifteen Chemical Control of the Brain and Behavior
• Introduction
• The Secretory Hypothalamus
• An Overview of the Hypothalamus
• Homeostasis
• Structure and Connections of the Hypothalamus
• Pathways to the Pituitary
• Hypothalamic Control of the Posterior Pituitary
• Hypothalamic Control of the Anterior Pituitary
• Box 15.1 Of Special Interest: Stress and the Brain
• The Autonomic Nervous System
• ANS Circuits
• Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
• The Enteric Division
• Central Control of the ANS
• Neurotransmitters and the Pharmacology of Autonomic Function
• Preganglionic Neurotransmitters
• Postganglionic Neurotransmitters
• The Diffuse Modulatory Systems of the Brain
• Anatomy and Functions of the Diffuse Modulatory Systems
• Box 15.2 Of Special Interest: You Eat What You Are
• The Noradrenergic Locus Coeruleus
• Box 15.3 Path of Discovery: Exploring the Central Noradrenergic Neurons, by Floyd Bloom
• The Serotonergic Raphe Nuclei
• The Dopaminergic Substantia Nigra and Ventral Tegmental Area
• The Cholinergic Basal Forebrain and Brain Stem Complexes
• Drugs and the Diffuse Modulatory Systems
• Hallucinogens
• Stimulants
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Sixteen Motivation
• Introduction
• The Hypothalamus, Homeostasis, and Motivated Behavior
• The Long-Term Regulation of Feeding Behavior
• Energy Balance
• Hormonal and Hypothalamic Regulation of Body Fat and Feeding
• Body Fat and Food Consumption
• Box 16.1 Of Special Interest: The Starving Brains of the Obese
• The Hypothalamus and Feeding
• The Effects of Elevated Leptin Levels on the Hypothalamus
• The Effects of Decreased Leptin Levels on the Hypothalamus
• The Control of Feeding by Lateral Hypothalamic Peptides
• The Short-Term Regulation of Feeding Behavior
• Appetite, Eating, Digestion, and Satiety
• Box 16.2 Of Special Interest: Marijuana and the Munchies
• Ghrelin
• Gastric Distension
• Cholecystokinin
• Insulin
• Box 16.3 Of Special Interest: Diabetes Mellitus and Insulin Shock
• Why Do We Eat?
• Reinforcement and Reward
• Box 16.4 Of Special Interest: Self-Stimulation of the Human Brain
• The Role of Dopamine in Motivation
• Box 16.5 Of Special Interest: Dopamine and Addiction
• Box 16.6 Path of Discovery: Learning to Crave, by Julie Kauer
• Serotonin, Food, and Mood
• Other Motivated Behaviors
• Drinking
• Temperature Regulation
• Concluding Remarks
• Box 16.7 Of Special Interest: Neuroeconomics
• Chapter Seventeen Sex and the Brain
• Introduction
• Sex and Gender
• The Genetics of Sex
• Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
• Sexual Development and Differentiation
• The Hormonal Control of Sex
• The Principal Male and Female Hormones
• The Control of Sex Hormones by the Pituitary and Hypothalamus
• The Neural Basis of Sexual Behaviors
• Reproductive Organs and Their Control
• Mammalian Mating Strategies
• The Neurochemistry of Reproductive Behavior
• Box 17.1 Path of Discovery: Bonding with Voles, by Thomas Insel
• Love, Bonding, and the Human Brain
• Why and How Male and Female Brains Differ
• Sexual Dimorphisms of the Central Nervous System
• Sexual Dimorphisms of Cognition
• Sex Hormones, The Brain, and Behavior
• Box 17.2 Of Special Interest: Bird Songs and Bird Brains
• Masculinization of the Fetal Brain
• Mismatches between Genetic Sex and Hormone Action
• Box 17.3 Of Special Interest: David Reimer and the Basis of Gender Identity
• Direct Genetic Effects on Behavior and Sexual Differentiation of the Brain
• The Activational Effects of Sex Hormones
• Brain Changes Associated with Maternal and Paternal Behavior
• Estrogen Effects on Neuron Function, Memory, and Disease
• Sexual Orientation
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Eighteen Brain Mechanisms of Emotion
• Introduction
• Early Theories of Emotion
• The James–Lange Theory
• The Cannon–Bard Theory
• Box 18.1 Of Special Interest: Butterflies in the Stomach
• Implications of Unconscious Emotion
• The Limbic System
• Broca’s Limbic Lobe
• The Papez Circuit
• Box 18.2 Of Special Interest: Phineas Gage
• Difficulties with the Concept of a Single System for Emotions
• Emotion Theories and Neural Representations
• Basic Emotion Theories
• Dimensional Emotion Theories
• What is an Emotion?
• Box 18.3 Path of Discovery: Concepts and Names in Everyday Science, by Antonio Damasio
• Fear and The Amygdala
• The Klüver–Bucy Syndrome
• Anatomy of the Amygdala
• Effects of Amygdala Stimulation and Lesions
• A Neural Circuit for Learned Fear
• Anger and Aggression
• The Amygdala and Aggression
• Surgery to Reduce Human Aggression
• Box 18.4 Of Special Interest: The Frontal Lobotomy
• Neural Components of Anger and Aggression Beyond the Amygdala
• Anger, Aggression, and the Hypothalamus
• The Midbrain and Aggression
• Serotonergic Regulation of Anger and Aggression
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Nineteen Brain Rhythms and Sleep
• Introduction
• The Electroencephalogram
• Recording Brain Waves
• Box 19.1 Path of Discovery: The Puzzle of Brain Rhythms, by Stephanie R. Jones
• EEG Rhythms
• Mechanisms and Meanings of Brain Rhythms
• The Generation of Synchronous Rhythms
• Functions of Brain Rhythms
• The Seizures of Epilepsy
• Sleep
• The Functional States of the Brain
• The Sleep Cycle
• Box 19.2 Of Special Interest: Walking, Talking, and Screaming in Your Sleep
• Why Do We Sleep?
• Box 19.3 Of Special Interest: The Longest All-Nighter
• Functions of Dreaming and REM Sleep
• Neural Mechanisms of Sleep
• Wakefulness and the Ascending Reticular Activating System
• Box 19.4 Of Special Interest: Narcolepsy
• Falling Asleep and the Non-REM State
• Mechanisms of REM Sleep
• Sleep-Promoting Factors
• Gene Expression during Sleeping and Waking
• Circadian Rhythms
• Biological Clocks
• The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: A Brain Clock
• Box 19.5 Of Special Interest: Mutant Hamster Clocks
• SCN Mechanisms
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Twenty Language
• Introduction
• What is Language?
• Human Sound and Speech Production
• Box 20.1 Of Special Interest: Thinking in Different Languages
• Language in Animals
• Language Acquisition
• Genes Involved in Language
• FOXP2 and Verbal Dyspraxia
• Genetic Factors in Specific Language Impairment and Dyslexia
• The Discovery of Specialized Language Areas in the Brain
• Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area
• Box 20.2 Of Special Interest: Assessing Hemispheric Language Dominance
• Language Insights From The Study of Aphasia
• Box 20.3 Path of Discovery: Uncovering Language Areas of the Brain, by Nina Dronkers
• Broca’s Aphasia
• Wernicke’s Aphasia
• The Wernicke–Geschwind Model of Language and Aphasia
• Conduction Aphasia
• Aphasia in Bilinguals and Deaf People
• Asymmetrical Language Processing in the Two Cerebral Hemispheres
• Language Processing in Split-Brain Humans
• Left Hemisphere Language Dominance
• Language Functions of the Right Hemisphere
• Anatomical Asymmetry and Language
• Language Studies Using Brain Stimulation and Human Brain Imaging
• The Effects of Brain Stimulation on Language
• Imaging of Language Processing in the Human Brain
• Box 20.4 Of Special Interest: Hearing Sight and Seeing Touch
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Twenty-One The Resting Brain, Attention, and Consciousness
• Introduction
• Resting State Brain Activity
• The Brain’s Default Mode Network
• Functions of the Default Network
• Attention
• Box 21.1 Of Special Interest: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
• Behavioral Consequences of Attention
• Attention Enhances Visual Sensitivity
• Attention Speeds Reaction Times
• Physiological Effects of Attention
• Functional MRI Imaging of Human Attention to Location
• PET Imaging of Human Attention to Features
• Attention Enhances Responses of Neurons in Parietal Cortex
• Attention Focuses Receptive Fields in Area V4
• Brain Circuits for the Control of Attention
• The Pulvinar, a Subcortical Component
• The Frontal Eye Fields, Eye Movements, and Attention
• Directing Attention with Salience and Priority Maps
• A Priority Map in the Parietal Lobe
• Box 21.2 Of Special Interest: Hemispatial Neglect Syndrome
• The Frontoparietal Attention Network
• Consciousness
• What Is Consciousness?
• Neural Correlates of Consciousness
• Box 21.3 Path of Discovery: Tracking the Neuronal Footprints of Consciousness, by Christof Koch
• Neuronal Correlates of Alternating Perception in Binocular Rivalry
• Visual Awareness and Human Brain Activity
• Challenges in the Study of Consciousness
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Twenty-Two Mental Illness
• Introduction
• Mental Illness and The Brain
• Psychosocial Approaches to Mental Illness
• Biological Approaches to Mental Illness
• The Promise and Challenge of Molecular Medicine in Psychiatry
• Anxiety Disorders
• A Description of Anxiety Disorders
• Panic Disorder
• Agoraphobia
• Box 22.1 Of Special Interest: Agoraphobia with Panic Attacks
• Other Disorders Characterized by Increased Anxiety
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
• Biological Bases of Anxiety Disorders
• The Stress Response
• Regulation of the HPA Axis by the Amygdala and Hippocampus
• Treatments for Anxiety Disorders
• Psychotherapy
• Anxiolytic Medications
• Affective Disorders
• A Description of Affective Disorders
• Major Depression
• Bipolar Disorder
• Box 22.2 Of Special Interest: A Magical Orange Grove in a Nightmare
• Biological Bases of Affective Disorders
• The Monoamine Hypothesis
• The Diathesis–Stress Hypothesis
• Anterior Cingulate Cortex Dysfunction
• Treatments for Affective Disorders
• Electroconvulsive Therapy
• Psychotherapy
• Antidepressants
• Lithium
• Deep Brain Stimulation
• Box 22.3 Path of Discovery: Tuning Depression Circuits, by Helen Mayberg
• Schizophrenia
• A Description of Schizophrenia
• Biological Bases of Schizophrenia
• Genes and the Environment
• The Dopamine Hypothesis
• The Glutamate Hypothesis
• Treatments for Schizophrenia
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Twenty-Three Wiring the Brain
• Introduction
• The Genesis of Neurons
• Cell Proliferation
• Box 23.1 Of Special Interest: Neurogenesis in Adult Humans
• Cell Migration
• Cell Differentiation
• Differentiation of Cortical Areas
• Box 23.2 Path of Discovery: Making a Map of the Mind, by Pasko Rakic
• The Genesis of Connections
• The Growing Axon
• Axon Guidance
• Guidance Cues
• Establishing Topographic Maps
• Box 23.3 Of Special Interest: Why Our CNS Axons Don’t Regenerate
• Synapse Formation
• The Elimination of Cells and Synapses
• Box 23.4 Of Special Interest: The Mystery of Autism
• Cell Death
• Changes in Synaptic Capacity
• Activity-Dependent Synaptic Rearrangement
• Synaptic Segregation
• Segregation of Retinal Inputs to the LGN
• Segregation of LGN Inputs in the Striate Cortex
• Box 23.5 Brain Food: Three-Eyed Frogs, Ocular Dominance Columns, and Other Oddities
• Box 23.6 Brain Food: The Critical Period Concept
• Synaptic Convergence
• Synaptic Competition
• Modulatory Influences
• Elementary Mechanisms of Cortical Synaptic Plasticity
• Excitatory Synaptic Transmission in the Immature Visual System
• Long-Term Synaptic Potentiation
• Long-Term Synaptic Depression
• Why Critical Periods End
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Twenty-Four Memory Systems
• Introduction
• Types of Memory and Amnesia
• Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory
• Box 24.1 Of Special Interest: Extraordinary Memory
• Types of Procedural Memory
• Nonassociative Learning
• Associative Learning
• Types of Declarative Memory
• Amnesia
• Working Memory
• The Prefrontal Cortex and Working Memory
• Imaging Working Memory in the Human Brain
• Area LIP and Working Memory
• Declarative Memory
• The Neocortex and Declarative Memory
• Hebb and the Cell Assembly
• Studies Implicating the Medial Temporal Lobes
• Anatomy of the Medial Temporal Lobe
• Electrical Stimulation of the Human Temporal Lobes
• Neural Recordings from the Human Medial Temporal Lobe
• Temporal Lobe Amnesia
• The Case of H.M.: Temporal Lobectomy and Amnesia
• An Animal Model of Human Amnesia
• Box 24.2 Of Special Interest: Korsakoff’s Syndrome and the Case of N.A.
• Memory Functions of the Hippocampal System
• The Effects of Hippocampal Lesions in Rats
• Spatial Memory, Place Cells, and Grid Cells
• Box 24.3 Path of Discovery: How the Brain Makes Maps, by Edvard and May-Britt Moser
• Hippocampal Functions Beyond Spatial Memory
• Consolidating Memories and Retaining Engrams
• Standard and Multiple Trace Models of Consolidation
• Reconsolidation
• Box 24.4 Of Special Interest: Introducing False Memories and Erasing Bad Memories
• Procedural Memory
• The Striatum and Procedural Memory in Rodents
• Habit Learning in Humans and Nonhuman Primates
• Concluding Remarks
• Chapter Twenty-five Molecular Mechanisms of Learning and Memory
• Introduction
• Memory Acquisition
• Cellular Reports of Memory Formation
• Distributed Memory Storage
• Box 25.1 Path of Discovery: What Attracted Me to the Study of Learning and Memory in Aplysia? by Eric Kandel
• Strengthening Synapses
• Anatomy of the Hippocampus
• Properties of LTP in CA1
• Mechanisms of LTP in CA1
• Box 25.2 Brain Food: Synaptic Plasticity: Timing Is Everything
• Weakening Synapses
• Box 25.3 Path of Discovery: Memories of Memory, by Leon Cooper
• Box 25.4 Brain Food: The Wide World of Long-Term Synaptic Depression
• Mechanisms of LTD in CA1
• Glutamate Receptor Trafficking
• LTP, LTD, and Memory
• Box 25.5 Of Special Interest: Memory Mutants
• Synaptic Homeostasis
• Metaplasticity
• Synaptic Scaling
• Memory Consolidation
• Persistently Active Protein Kinases
• CaMKII
• Protein Kinase M Zeta
• Protein Synthesis and Memory Consolidation
• Synaptic Tagging and Capture
• CREB and Memory
• Structural Plasticity and Memory
• Concluding Remarks
• Glossary
• References
• Index