Efnisyfirlit

• Contents
• Introduction
• Chapter 1: Cells
• 1.1: Cell theory, cell specialization, and cell replacement
• Cell theory
• Functions of life
• Cells and sizes
• Limiting cell size
• Cell reproduction and differentiation
• Stem cells
• 1.2: The ultrastructure of cells
• What is a prokaryotic cell?
• Features of prokaryotic cells
• What is a eukaryotic cell?
• Organelles of eukaryotic cells
• A comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
• A comparison of plant and animal cells and their extracellular components
• 1.3: Membrane structure
• Membrane structure
• Membrane protein functions
• 1.4: Membrane transport
• Passive and active transport
• Active transport and the cell
• Endocytosis and exocytosis
• Summary of membrane transport processes
• 1.5: The origin of cells
• Cell theory
• 1.6: Cell division
• The cell cycle
• Mitosis
• Cancer
• Chapter 2: Molecular biology
• 2.1: Molecules to metabolism
• Molecular biology is the chemistry of living organisms
• Carbon-based life
• Biochemical compounds that are important to living organisms
• Metabolism: reactions controlled by enzymes
• Metabolism = catabolism + anabolism
• Section summary
• 2.2: Water
• The structure of water molecules and the resulting polarity
• Section summary
• 2.3: Carbohydrates and lipids
• Monosaccharides: the building blocks of disaccharides
• Monosaccharides: the building blocks of polysaccharides
• Fatty acids
• Condensation reactions result in the formation of triglyceride lipids
• Energy storage solutions in humans
• Calculating the body mass index
• Section summary
• 2.4: Proteins
• Formation of polypeptides
• Polypeptides are highly variable
• Levels of polypeptide and protein structure
• Some proteins are more than one polypeptide
• Your unique proteome
• Proteins can be denatured by heat and alteration of the pH environment
• Section summary
• 2.5: Enzymes
• Enzymes are organic molecules that act as catalysts
• Factors affecting enzyme-catalysed reactions
• Use of immobilized enzymes in industry
• Section summary
• 2.6: Structure of DNA and RNA
• Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids
• Monomers into polymers
• Single strand or double strand
• Section summary
• 2.7: DNA replication, transcription, and translation
• DNA replication involves ‘unzipping’
• Formation of two complementary strands
• DNA replication summary
• Protein synthesis
• Protein synthesis summary
• 2.8: Cell respiration
• Cell respiration is used by all cells to produce ATP
• Glycolysis is the first step in the cell respiration process
• Some cells use anaerobic respiration for ATP production
• Aerobic cell respiration is the most efficient pathway
• Section summary
• 2.9: Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy
• Plants use the pigment chlorophyll to absorb light energy
• Photosynthesis occurs in two stages
• Measuring the rate of photosynthesis
• The effects of changing environmental factors on the rate of photosynthesis
• Section summary
• Chapter 3: Genetics
• 3.1: Genes
• What is a gene?
• A gene is found at a particular locus on a chromosome
• Alleles: versions of genes
• One base can make a big difference
• How new alleles are produced
• A genome
• Section summary
• 3.2: Chromosomes
• The chromosome in prokaryotes
• Plasmids
• Eukaryote chromosomes
• Multiple chromosomes
• Homologous chromosomes: same genes but not always the same alleles
• Diploid and haploid cells
• Chromosome number: a defining feature
• Karyograms and kary
• Sex determination
• Section summary
• 3.3: Meiosis
• Producing four haploid nuclei
• The halving of the chromosome number
• DNA is replicated before meiosis
• Pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over
• Random orientation
• Halving the chromosome number
• Fertilization and variation
• Section summary
• 3.4: Inheritance
• Mendel’s experiments with pea plants
• Gametes have only one allele of each gene
• The two alleles of each gene separate
• Fusion of gametes
• Dominant alleles and co-dominant alleles
• Autosomal genetic diseases in humans
• Genetic diseases are rare
• Diseases caused by sex-linked genes or co-dominant alleles
• The pattern of inheritance with sex-linked genes
• Some possible causes of mutations, genetic diseases, and cancer
• Section summary
• 3.5: Genetic modification and biotechnology
• Exploring DNA
• Gel electrophoresis
• PCR: how to make lots of copies of DNA
• DNA profiling
• Genetic modification: gene transfer between species
• Clones
• Natural methods of cloning
• Animals cloned from embryos
• Animal clones from adult cells
• Section summary
• Chapter 4: Ecology
• 4.1: Species, communities, and ecosystems
• The interdependence of living organisms
• What is a species?
• Populations can become isolated
• Autotrophs and heterotrophs
• Consumers
• Detritivores
• Saprotrophs
• Communities
• Where do autotrophs get their nutrients?
• Nutrient cycling
• The sustainability of ecosystems
• Section summary
• 4.2: Energy flow
• The importance of sunlight to ecosystems
• The role of photosynthesis
• Food chains
• Cellular respiration and heat
• Heat cannot be recycled
• Where does the heat go?
• Food webs and energy levels in trophic levels
• Section summary
• 4.3: Carbon cycling
• Carbon
• The role of autotrophs in the carbon cycle
• Carbon in aquatic ecosystems
• Cycling of carbon dioxide
• Methane in the carbon cycle
• The oxidation of methane
• Peat as a fossil fuel
• Oil and gas as fossil fuels
• Carbon dioxide is produced when fossil fuels are used
• Limestone
• Section summary
• 4.4: Climate change
• The atmosphere
• The roles of carbon dioxide and water vapour in the greenhouse effect
• Different gases, different impacts
• Planet Earth gives off heat
• How greenhouse gases heat the atmosphere
• Global climate change is affected by greenhouse gases
• The industrial revolution
• Threats to coral reefs
• Are humans causing global climate change?
• Section summary
• Chapter 5: Evolution and biodiversity
• 5.1: Evidence for evolution
• Darwin and Wallace
• What is evolution?
• The fossil record and evolution
• Artificial selection and evolution
• Evolution of homologous structures by adaptive radiation
• Continuous variation and the concept of gradual divergence
• Section summary
• 5.2: Natural selection
• The mechanism for evolution
• Mutation, meiosis, and sexual reproduction
• To adapt or not to adapt?
• Passing on successful characteristics
• Natural selection and the frequency of characteristics
• Section summary
• 5.3: Classification of biodiversity
• The binomial system of names for species
• A hierarchy of taxa
• A common ancestral species
• Reclassification
• Natural classification
• Section summary
• 5.4: Cladistics
• Characteristics used for classification
• Clades
• Analogous and homologous traits
• Cladograms
• Reclassifi cation
• Section summary
• Chapter 6: Human physiology
• 6.1: Digestion and absorption
• Digestion is an enzyme-facilitated chemical process
• The anatomy of the human digestive system
• The alimentary canal is a muscular tube
• The role of the pancreas during digestion
• The role of the small intestine in digestion and absorption
• Section summary
• 6.2: The blood system
• Arteries, capillaries, and veins
• The heart, a double pump
• Control of the heart rate
• Changes in pressure within the heart chambers keep the blood moving
• Build-up of plaque in arteries leads to atherosclerosis
• Section summary
• 6.3: Defence against infectious disease
• Primary defence is to keep pathogens out
• When pathogens get past skin and mucous membranes
• What is HIV and how does it affect the human immune system?
• The use of antibiotics to combat bacterial infections
• An unsolved dilemma: bacterial resistance to antibiotics
• Section summary
• 6.4: Gas exchange
• Overview of the respiratory system
• The mechanism of ventilation
• Gas exchange occurs in alveoli
• Causes and consequences of emphysema
• Causes and consequences of lung cancer
• Section summary
• 6.5: Neurones and synapses
• The organization of the human nervous system
• Neurones
• What is a nerve impulse?
• Saltatory conduction by neurones that have a myelin sheath
• Synapses: chemical communication between neurones
• A new class of insecticides based on blocking synaptic transmission
• Section summary
• 6.6: Hormones, homeostasis, and reproduction
• Homeostasis
• Selected hormones and their functions
• Insulin and glucagon help regulate glucose levels
• Diabetes
• Human reproduction
• How does a person become male or female?
• Role of sex hormones during puberty
• The menstrual cycle
• In vitro fertilization (IVF)
• Section summary
• Chapter 7: Option A: Neurobiology and behaviour
• A.1: Neural development
• Neural tube formation
• Axon growth
• Multiple synapses
• The plasticity of the nervous system
• Section summary
• A.2: The human brain
• The neural tube expands to form the brain
• Different parts of the brain have specific roles
• The autonomic nervous system has two divisions
• The cerebral cortex
• Brain metabolism requires large energy inputs
• Section summary
• A.3: Perception of stimuli
• Sensory receptors and diversity of stimuli
• Receptors detect changes in the environment
• The structure and function of the human eye
• The structure of the ear
• Section summary
• Chapter 8: Option B: Biotechnology and bioinformatics
• B.1: Microbiology: organisms in industry
• Microorganisms in industry
• Pathway engineering
• Fermentation
• Deep-tank fermentation of penicillin
• Continuous-batch fermentation of citric acid
• Biogas production by archaeans and bacteria
• Gram staining
• Section summary
• B.2: Biotechnology in agriculture
• Genetic modification of crops
• Novel products from GM plants
• Physical methods as a direct means of inserting genes into plants
• Chemical methods as a direct means of inserting genes into plants
• Vectors as an indirect means of inserting genes into plants
• Identifying a target gene using bioinformatics
• Section summary
• B.3: Environmental protection
• Responses to pollution incidents
• Bioremediation
• Biofilms
• Bacteriophages and the disinfection of water systems
• Biofilms clean polluted waterways
• Section summary
• Chapter 9: Option C: Ecology and conservation
• C.1: Species and communities
• Limiting factors affect the distribution of species in a community
• The distribution of species depends on their tolerance of limiting factors
• Keystone species
• Each species plays a unique role within a community
• Competitive exclusion
• Fundamental niche versus realized niche
• Use of a transect to correlate the distribution of a plant with an abiotic variable
• Section summary
• C.2: Communities and ecosystems
• Energy flow through the ecosystem
• Conversion ratio in sustainable food production
• Change in ecosystems over time by primary and secondary succession
• Species diversity and production in a primary succession
• Biosphere and biomes
• Gersmehl diagrams
• A closed ecosystem
• Disturbances influence the structure and rate of change in an ecosystem
• Section summary
• C.3: Impact of humans on ecosystems
• Biological control: risks and benefits
• Biomagnification
• Macroplastics in the marine environment
• Microplastics in the marine environment
• Biological control and eradication programmes to reduce the impact of alien species
• Analysis of data illustrating the cause and effects of biomagnification
• Section summary
• C.4: Conservation of biodiversity
• Indicator species and biotic indices
• Richness and evenness are components of biodiversity
• Analysis of the biodiversity of two local communities
• Management of conservation areas
• In situ conservation methods
• Ex situ conservation methods
• Biogeographical factors affect species diversity
• The impact of edge effect on diversity
• Section summary
• Chapter 10: Option D: Human physiology
• D.1: Human nutrition
• Essential nutrients: what are they?
• Phenylketonuria (PKU)
• Eating and nutrition disorders
• Section summary
• D.2: Digestion
• Exocrine secretions are fundamental to the digestive process
• Gastric secretions and their control
• What is the role of HCl during the digestive process?
• What causes stomach ulcers?
• Adaptations of villi epithelial cells for efficient absorption
• The importance of fibre in the diet
• Section summary
• D.3: Functions of the liver
• Circulation of blood to and from the liver
• Sinusoids are the capillaries of the liver
• The liver removes toxins from the blood
• Sinusoids are the capillaries of the liver
• The liver removes toxins from the blood
• Regulation of nutrients in the blood
• The liver recycles components of erythrocytes and haemoglobin
• Hepatocytes produce and secrete bile and plasma proteins
• Causes and consequences of jaundice
• Section summary
• D.4: The heart
• The heart is composed of cardiac muscle cells
• The cardiac cycle
• Myogenic control of heart rate
• Mapping the cardiac cycle to a normal ECG trace
• Common heart problems and their treatments
• Section summary
• Theory of knowledge
• What is this chapter all about?
• On the right track?
• Debates
• More debates
• The TOK framework
• Nature of science(s)
• How do we know?
• Ways of knowing
• Catching a cold
• Phrenology
• Tongue map
• Art and imagination
• Decisions, decisions
• Is there an end?
• Doctor, which drug treatment is best for me?
• The placebo effect
• Models
• Who’s right?
• Religion in an age of science
• Ockham’s razor
• Limits of perception
• The eye is not a camera
• We were wrong, here’s the real story
• Archaeopteryx
• The end of spontaneous generation
• Unprovable assumptions?
• Scienti˜ c science
• Knowledge claims
• What is nature?
• Science vocabulary
• Wiki
• Seeing is believing: but what if you cannot see?
• What quali˜ es as an experiment?
• Theory versus myth
• Biology and values
• Moral responsibility
• Science and religion
• Science and technology
• Reading your mind
• Inaccessible worlds
• Mathematics, and information and communication technology skills
• The biology extended essay
• Advice on criteria for assessing your extended essay
• Suggestions for course study and strategies for the IB biology exam
• General suggestions for course study
• Specific suggestions for IB biology course study using this text
• Strategies for success when answering questions in the IB exams
• And finally
• Index
• Back Cover