Efnisyfirlit

• Contents
• Introduction
• Chapter 1: Stoichiometric relationships
• 1.1: Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and chemical change
• Chemical elements are the fundamental building blocks of chemistry
• Chemical compounds are formed from more than one element
• Chemical equations summarize chemical change
• Mixtures form when substances combine without chemical interaction
• Matter exists in different states determined by the temperature and pressure
• Matter changes state reversibly
• 1.2: The mole concept
• The Avogadro constant defi nes the mole as the unit of amount in chemistry
• Relative atomic mass is used to compare the masses of atoms
• Relative formula mass is used to compare masses of compounds
• Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance
• The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest ratio of its atoms
• Percentage composition by mass can be calculated from the empirical formula
• The molecular formula of a compound gives the actual number of atoms in a molecule
• 1.3: Reacting masses and volumes
• Chemical equations show reactants combining in a fixed molar ratio
• The theoretical yield is determined by the limiting reactant
• The percentage yield can be calculated from the experimental and theoretical yields
• Avogadro’s law directly relates gas volumes to moles
• All gases under the same conditions have the same molar volume
• The gas laws describe pressure, volume and temperature relationships for all gases
• The ideal gas equation is derived from the combined gas equation and Avogadro’s law
• Real gases show deviation from ideal behaviour
• The concentration of a solution depends on moles of solute and volume of solution
• Dilutions of solutions reduce the concentration
• The concentration of a solution can be determined by volumetric analysis
• Chapter 2: Atomic structure
• 2.1: The nuclear atom
• Dalton’s model of the atom
• Atoms contain electrons
• Rutherford’s model of the atom
• Sub-atomic particles
• Bohr model of the hydrogen atom
• Atomic number and mass number
• Ions
• Relative atomic masses of some elements
• Mass spectra
• 2.2: Electron configuration
• The electromagnetic spectrum
• Atomic absorption and emission line spectra
• Evidence for the Bohr model
• The hydrogen spectrum
• Wave and particle models
• The Uncertainty Principle
• Schrödinger model of the hydrogen atom
• Atomic orbitals
• Sub-levels of electrons
• Aufbau Principle: orbital diagrams
• The relative energy of the orbitals depends on the atomic number
• Electron configuration of ions
• Electronic configuration and the Periodic Table
• Chapter 3: Periodicity
• 3.1: The Periodic Table
• Periods and groups
• Metals and non-metals
• 3.2: Periodic trends
• Physical properties
• Ionization energies
• Chemical properties
• Bonding of the Period 3 oxides
• Chapter 4: Chemical bonding and structure
• 4.1: Ionic bonding and structure
• Ions form when electrons are transferred
• Ionic compounds form when oppositely charged ions attract
• Ionic compounds have a lattice structure
• The physical properties of ionic compounds reflect their lattice structure
• Different ionic compounds have a different extent of ionic character
• 4.2: Covalent bonding
• A covalent bond forms by atoms sharing electrons
• Atoms can share more than one pair of electrons to form multiple bonds
• Short bonds are strong bonds
• 4.3: Covalent structures
• Lewis diagrams are used to show the arrangement of electrons in covalent molecules
• In coordinate bonds both shared electrons come from one atom
• The octet rule is not always followed
• VSEPR theory: The shape of a molecule is determined by repulsion between electron domains
• Summary of shapes of molecules predicted from VSEPR theory
• Molecules with polar bonds are not always polar
• Electrons in multiple bonds can sometimes spread themselves between more than one bonding position
• Some covalent substances form giant molecular crystalline solids
• 4.4: Intermolecular forces
• London (dispersion) forces
• Dipole–dipole attraction
• Hydrogen bonding
• The physical properties of covalent compounds are largely a result of their intermolecular forces
• 4.5: Metallic bonding
• Alloys are solutions of metals with enhanced properties
• Chapter 5: Energetics and thermochemistry
• 5.1: Measuring energy changes
• Work and heat transfer energy
• System and surroundings
• The heat content of a system is its enthalpy
• Exothermic and endothermic reactions
• Standard enthalpy changes
• Thermochemical equations
• Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy
• Heat changes can be calculated from temperature changes
• Enthalpy changes and the direction of change
• Measuring enthalpy changes of combustion
• Calculating enthalpies of reaction in solution from temperature changes
• Enthalpy changes of reaction in solution
• 5.2: Hess’s law
• Enthalpy cycles
• Using Hess’s law
• Standard enthalpy changes of reaction
• Using standard enthalpy changes of formation
• 5.3: Bond enthalpies
• Breaking bonds is an endothermic process
• Making bonds is an exothermic process
• Using bond enthalpies to calculate the enthalpy changes of reaction
• Ozone depletion
• Chapter 6: Chemical kinetics
• 6.1: Collision theory and rates of reaction
• Rate of reaction is defined as the rate of change in concentration
• Measuring rates of reaction uses different techniques depending on the reaction
• Collision theory
• Factors affecting rate of reaction
• Chapter 7: Equilibrium
• 7.1: Equilibrium
• Physical systems
• Chemical systems
• The equilibrium state has specific characteristics
• The equilibrium constant Kc can be predicted from a reaction’s stoichiometry
• The magnitude of Kc gives information on the extent of reaction
• The reaction quotient, Q, enables us to predict the direction of reaction
• Relationships between Kc for different equations of a reaction
• When equilibrium is disrupted
• Equilibrium theory is applied in many industrial processes
• Chapter 8: Acids and bases
• 8.1: Theories of acids and bases
• Early theories
• Brønsted–Lowry: a theory of proton transfer
• 8.2: Properties of acids and bases
• Acids react with metals, bases, and carbonates to form salts
• Acids and bases can be distinguished using indicators
• 8.3: The pH scale
• pH is a logarithmic expression of [H+]
• pH calculations
• Measuring pH
• The relationship between H+ and OH− is inverse
• Summary of steps in calculations of H+, OH− and pH
• 8.4: Strong and weak acids and bases
• The strength of an acid or base depends on its extent of ionization
• Weak acids and bases are much more common than strong acids and bases
• Distinguishing between strong and weak acids and bases
• 8.5: Acid deposition
• Causes of acid deposition
• Effects of acid deposition
• Responses to acid deposition
• Chapter 9: Redox processes
• 9.1: Oxidation and reduction
• Introduction to oxidation and reduction
• Oxidation numbers enable us to track redox change
• Strategy for assigning oxidation states
• Interpreting oxidation states
• Systematic names of compounds use oxidation numbers
• Redox equations
• Oxidizing and reducing agents
• More reactive metals are stronger reducing agents
• More reactive non-metals are stronger oxidizing agents
• Redox titrations
• 9.2: Electrochemical cells
• Voltaic cells generate electricity from spontaneous redox reactions
• Half-cells generate electrode potentials
• Two connected half-cells make a voltaic cell
• Different half-cells make voltaic cells with different voltages
• An external source of electricity drives non-spontaneous redox reactions
• Redox reactions occur at the electrodes
• The electrolysis of molten salts
• Chapter 10: Organic chemistry
• 10.1: Fundamentals of organic chemistry
• Homologous series
• Formulas for organic compounds: empirical, molecular, and structural
• Nomenclature for organic compounds: the IUPAC system
• Structural isomers: different arrangements of the same atoms
• Primary, secondary, and tertiary compounds
• Arenes
• Trends in physical properties
• 10.2: Functional group chemistry
• Alkanes
• Alkenes
• Alcohols
• Halogenoalkanes
• Benzene
• Chapter 11: Measurement and data processing and analysis
• 11.1: Uncertainties and errors in measurement and results
• Uncertainty in measurement
• Other sources of uncertainty
• Significant figures in measurements
• Experimental errors
• Percentage uncertainties and errors
• Propagation of uncertainties in calculated results
• Significant figures in calculations
• Discussing errors and uncertainties
• 11.2: Graphical techniques
• Plotting graphs
• The ‘best-fit’ straight line
• Finding the gradient of a straight line or curve
• Errors and graphs
• Choosing what to plot to produce a straight line
• Sketched graphs are used to show qualitative trends
• Using spreadsheets to plot graphs
• 11.3: Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds
• Analytical techniques
• Mass spectrometry
• The degree of unsaturation/IHD
• Different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum give different information about the structure of
• Infrared (IR) spectroscopy
• Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy
• Analytical chemistry depends on combining information
• Chapter 12: Option A: Materials
• A.1: Materials science introduction
• Materials are classifi ed based on their uses, properties, or bonding and structure
• The properties of a material based on the degree of covalent, ionic, or metallic character can be de
• There are four distinct classes of materials
• Some physical properties of materials
• A.2: Metals and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy
• The method of extraction is related to its position in the activity series
• The equations for the extraction can be deduced from changes in oxidation numbers
• Aluminium is extracted from its ore (bauxite) by electrolysis
• The amount of metal produced depends on the number of electrons supplied
• Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals with other metals or non-metals
• Paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials display different behaviour in magnetic fields because of the
• Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy determines the identity and concentration of metals
• A.3: Catalysts
• Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis
• Examples of catalysts: transition metals
• Zeolites act as selective catalysts because of their cage structures
• Nanoparticles are effective heterogeneous catalysts as they havelarge surface areas per unit mass
• Catalytic activity can be modified with the use of promoters and inhibitors or inactivated by poison
• Catalyst choice depends on selectivity for only the desired product and environmental impact
• A.4: Liquid crystals
• Thermotropic liquid crystals show liquid crystal behaviour over a temperature range
• Lyotropic liquid crystals are solutions
• The elasticity and electrical and optical properties depend on the orientation of the molecule to so
• Biphenyl nitriles show liquid crystal behaviour
• The use of biphenyl nitriles in liquid crystal display devices
• Twisted nematic LCDs
• A.5: Polymers
• The density of poly(ethene) depends on the branching in the structure
• Different orientations of side groups lead to isotactic and atactic forms
• The properties of polyvinyl chloride are modified by using plasticizers
• Expanded polystyrene is made by adding volatile hydrocarbons
• Polymers can be classified based on their response to heat and applied forces
• Atom economy is a measure of efficiency applied in Green Chemistry
• A.6: Nanotechnology
• Nanotechnology involves structures in the 1–100 nm range
• Individual atoms can be visualized and manipulated using the scanning tunnelling and atomic force mi
• Self-assembly can occur spontaneously in solution due to intermolecular interactions
• Nanowires are used in electronic devices
• Carbon nanotubes are made from pentagons and hexagons of carbon atoms
• Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) can be made
• Graphene is a single atomic plane of graphite
• Carbon nanotubes are made by arc discharge, chemical vapour deposition (CVD), and high-pressure carb
• Implications of nanotechnology
• A.7: Environmental impact: plastics
• Health concerns of using volatile plasticizer in polymer production
• Plastics do not degrade easily because of their strong covalent bonds
• Incineration of plastics reduces bulk, releases energy but produces air pollution
• Incomplete combustion of PVC produces dioxins
• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans are dioxin-like substances and ar
• House fires can release many toxins when plastic objects burn
• Plastics require more processing to be recycled than other materials
• Plastics can be identified from their IR spectrum
• Chapter 13: Option B: Biochemistry
• B.1: Introduction to biochemistry
• Biochemical reactions are organized in metabolic pathways
• Biomolecules are diverse organic molecules
• Living cells transform energy
• B.2: Proteins and enzymes
• The functions of proteins
• The structure of proteins
• Enzymes are globular proteins
• Enzymes form a complex with the substrate
• Analysis of proteins
• B.3: Lipids
• Functions of lipids
• Structures of different lipids
• Structure of triglycerides: fats and oils
• Structure of phospholipids
• Structure of steroids
• B.4: Carbohydrates
• Functions of carbohydrates
• Structure of carbohydrates
• B.5: Vitamins
• Vitamins are organic micronutrients
• Vitamin deficiencies are a form of malnutrition
• B.6: Biochemistry and the environment
• Xenobiotics: strangers to life
• Amelioration: responses to xenobiotics
• Green Chemistry
• Chapter 14: Option C: Energy
• C.1: Energy sources
• A useful energy source releases energy at a reasonable rate and produces minimal pollution
• Renewable energy sources are naturally replenished
• The energy density of a fuel is the energy produced per unit volume and the specific energy is the e
• Energy conversions are never 100% efficient
• C.2: Fossil fuels
• Fossil fuels were formed by the reduction of biological compounds
• Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel
• Crude oil is a valuable fuel and chemical feedstock
• Natural gas is mainly methane
• The past and future of fossil fuels
• Carbon footprint
• C.3: Nuclear fusion and fission
• Some particles in the particles zoo
• The mass defect is the difference between the mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of its i
• Binding energy graphs can be used to understand nuclear stability
• Light nucleican undergo fusion reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon
• The elements in the stars can be identified by their absorption spectra
• Nuclear fusion as a possible source of energy
• The advantages of nuclear fusion
• Heavy nuclei can undergo fission reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon
• Uncontrolled nuclear reactions are used in nuclear weapons
• 239/94 Pu used as a fuel in ‘breeder reactors’ is produced from 238/92U by neutron capture
• Nuclear waste is still radioactive
• The half-life of radioactive isotopes
• Nuclear waste can be high level or low level
• Comparison between fossil fuel and nuclear power stations
• C.4: Solar energy
• Light can be absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments with a conjugated electronic structure
• Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy
• Ethanol can be used as a biofuel
• The advantages and disadvantages of using biofuels
• The energy content of vegetable oils
• Transesterifi cation with ethanol or methanol produces oils with lower viscosity that can be used in
• C.5: Environmental impact: global warming
• Greenhouse gases absorb the long-wavelength IR radiation from the Earth
• Greenhouse gases and their sources
• Influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on the atmosphere
• There is a heterogeneous equilibrium between atmospheric carbon dioxide and aqueous carbon dioxide i
• Ocean acidification affects shell-forming animals
• Global dimming
• Three strategies for reducing carbon dioxide levels
• Chapter 15: Option D: Medicinal chemistry
• D.1: Pharmaceutical products and drug action
• The human body has many natural systems of defence
• Medicines and drugs: some terminology
• Drugs can be administered in different ways
• Bioavailability of drugs: the amount that reaches the target
• Physiological effects of drugs are complex
• Drug action depends on interactions with receptors
• The development of new synthetic drugs is a long and costly process
• D.2: Aspirin and penicillin
• Aspirin: a mild analgesic
• Penicillin: an early antibiotic
• D.3: Opiates
• The opiates bind to receptor sites in the brain
• Strong analgesics must enter the brain
• The structures and synthesis of opiods
• Advantages and disadvantages of using strong analgesics
• D.4: pH regulation of the stomach
• Excess acidity in the stomach is potentially harmful
• Some drugs work to prevent the production of excess acid
• Antacids are weak bases which neutralize excess acid
• D.5: Antiviral medications
• Viruses: nature’s most successful parasites
• The war against viruses
• Flu viruses: a case study in antivirals
• AIDS: a viral pandemic
• D.6: Environmental impact of some medications
• Solvent waste: the major emission of the drug industry
• Nuclear waste: an increasing problem in the drug industry
• Antibiotic waste: are we killing the cures?
• Obtaining the Tamiflu precursor: a Green Chemistry case study
• Green Chemistry success stories in the pharmaceutical industry
• Green chemistry
• Experimental work in chemistry
• Experimental work is an integral part of chemistry
• Health, safety, and the environment
• Practical skills
• Assessment of experimental work
• Internal assessment
• The investigation
• The assessment criteria
• Making the most of your Internal Assessment opportunity
• Theory of knowledge
• Introduction
• Ways of knowing: perception
• Chemistry and technology
• The scientific method
• Ways of knowing: induction (reason)
• Ways of knowing: deduction (reason)
• Same data, different hypothesis
• Rejecting anomalous results: confirmation bias
• Are the models and theories that scientists use merely pragmatic instruments or do they actually des
• Science and pseudoscience: alchemy and homeopathy
• A web and hierarchy of disciplines
• How does chemical knowledge change with time?
• Paradigm shifts: phlogiston theory andthe discovery of oxygen
• Shared and personal knowledge
• Ways of knowing: language
• Measurement: the observer effect
• Knowledge and belief
• Chemistry and ethics
• Ways of knowing: imagination
• The knowledge framework in chemistry
• Chemistry and TOK assessment
• Some examples of prescribed essay titles for you to consider
• Advice on the extended essay
• Some advice
• The assessment criteria
• Bibliography and references
• World Studies Extended Essay
• Strategies for success
• During the course
• Preparing for the examination
• In the examination
• Index
• Back Cover