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• Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology
• Preface
• Contents
• Part I: Context
• 1: The Ecosystem Concept
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Overview of Ecosystem Ecology
• History of Ecosystem Ecology
• Ecosystem Structure and Functioning
• Ecosystem Processes
• Ecosystem Structure and Constraints
• Controls Over Ecosystem Processes
• Human-Induced Ecosystem Change
• Human Impacts on Ecosystems
• Resilience and Threshold Changes
• Degradation in Ecosystem Services
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• 2: Earth’s Climate System
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Earth’s Energy Budget
• The Atmospheric System
• Atmospheric Composition and Chemistry
• Atmospheric Structure
• Atmospheric Circulation
• The Ocean
• Ocean Structure
• Ocean Circulation
• Landform Effects on Climate
• Vegetation Influences on Climate
• Temporal Variability in Climate
• Long-Term Changes
• Anthropogenic Climate Change
• Interannual Climate Variability
• Seasonal and Daily Variation
• Storms and Weather
• Relationship of Climate to Ecosystem Distribution and Structure
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• 3: Geology, Soils, and Sediments
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Controls Over Soil Formation
• Parent Material
• Climate
• Topography
• Time
• Potential Biota
• Human Activities
• Controls Over Soil Loss
• Development of Soil Profiles
• Additions to Soils
• Soil Transformations
• Soil Transfers
• Losses from Soils
• Soil Horizons and Soil Classification
• Soil Properties and Ecosystem Functioning
• Soil Physical Properties
• Soil Chemical Properties
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• Part II: Mechanisms
• 4: Water and Energy Balance
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Surface Energy Balance
• Radiation Budget
• Partitioning of Absorbed Radiation
• Box 4.1 The Energetics of Water Movement
• Overview of Ecosystem Water Budgets
• Water Inputs to Ecosystems
• Water Movements Within Ecosystems
• Water Movement from the Canopy to the Soil
• Water Storage and Movement in the Soil
• Water Movement from Soil to Roots
• Water Movement Through Plants
• Roots
• Box 4.2 Tracing Water Flow Through Ecosystems
• Stems
• Leaves
• Water Losses from Ecosystems
• Evaporation from Wet Canopies
• Evapotranspiration from Dry Canopies
• Changes in Storage
• Runoff
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• 5: Carbon Inputs to Ecosystems
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Overview of Carbon Inputs to Ecosystems
• Biochemistry of Photosynthesis
• Pelagic Photosynthesis
• Light Limitation
• CO 2 Supply
• Nutrient Limitation
• Pelagic GPP
• Living on the Edge: Streams and Shorelines
• Terrestrial Photosynthesis
• Photosynthetic Structure of Terrestrial Ecosystems
• C 4 Photosynthesis
• Box 5.1 Carbon Isotopes
• Crassulacean Acid Metabolism
• CO 2 Limitation
• Light Limitation
• Nitrogen Limitation and Photosynthetic Capacity
• Water Limitation
• Temperature Effects
• Pollutants
• Terrestrial GPP
• Canopy Processes
• Leaf Area
• Length of the Photosynthetic Season
• Satellite-Based Estimates of GPP
• Summary
• Additional Reading
• 6: Plant Carbon Budgets
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Plant Respiration
• What Is NPP?
• Marine NPP
• Lake NPP
• Stream and River NPP
• Terrestrial NPP
• Physiological Controls Over NPP
• Environmental and Species Controls Over NPP
• Allocation
• Allocation of NPP
• Allocation Response to Multiple Resources
• Diurnal and Seasonal Cycles of Allocation
• Tissue Turnover
• Global Distribution of Biomass and NPP
• Biome Differences in Biomass
• Biome Differences in NPP
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• 7: Decomposition and Ecosystem Carbon Budgets
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Overview of Decomposition and Ecosystem Carbon Balance
• Leaching of Litter
• Litter Fragmentation
• Chemical Alteration
• Fungi
• Bacteria and Archaea
• Soil Animals
• Temporal and Spatial Heterogeneity of Decomposition
• Temporal Pattern
• Vertical Distribution
• Box 7.1 Isotopes and Soil Carbon Turnover
• Factors Controlling Decomposition
• Litter Quality
• Rhizosphere Stimulation of Decomposition
• Microbial Community Composition and Enzymatic Capacity
• The Environment
• Moisture
• Temperature
• Soil Organic Matter
• Soil Properties
• Soil Disturbance
• Humus Formation
• Peat Accumulation and Trace Gas Emissions
• Heterotrophic Respiration
• Net Ecosystem Production (NEP)
• Box 7.2 Measuring Carbon Fluxes of Ecosystems and Regions
• Net Ecosystem Carbon Balance
• Gaseous Carbon Fluxes
• Particulate Carbon Fluxes
• Dissolved Carbon Fluxes
• Stream Carbon Fluxes
• Stream Decomposition
• Stream Carbon Budgets
• Lake Carbon Fluxes
• Ocean Carbon Fluxes
• Carbon Exchange at the Global Scale
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• 8: Plant Nutrient Use
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Overview
• Ocean Ecosystems
• Lake Ecosystems
• Rivers and Streams
• Terrestrial Ecosystems
• Nutrient Movement to the Root
• Diffusion
• Mass Flow
• Root Interception
• Nutrient Absorption
• Nutrient Supply
• Development of Root Length
• Mycorrhizae
• Nitrogen Fixation
• Root Absorption Properties
• Nutrient Use
• Nutrient Loss from Plants
• Senescence
• Leaching Loss from Plants
• Herbivory
• Other Avenues of Nutrient Loss from Plants
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• 9: Nutrient Cycling
• Introduction
• A Focal Point
• Overview of Nutrient Cycling
• Marine Nutrient Cycling
• Large-Scale Nutrient Cycles
• Estuaries
• Coastal Currents
• Lake Nutrient Cycling
• Stream Nutrient Cycling
• Nitrogen Inputs to Terrestrial Ecosystems
• Biological Nitrogen Fixation
• Groups of Nitrogen Fixers
• Causes of Variation in Nitrogen Fixation
• Nitrogen Deposition
• Internal Cycling of Nitrogen
• Overview of Mineralization
• Production and Fate of Dissolved Organic Nitrogen
• Production and Fate of Ammonium
• Production and Fate of Nitrate
• Temporal and Spatial Variability
• Pathways of Nitrogen Loss
• Gaseous Losses of Nitrogen
• Ecological Controls
• Atmospheric Roles of Nitrogen Gases
• Solution Losses
• Erosional Losses
• Other Element Cycles
• Phosphorus
• Sulfur
• Essential Cations
• Micronutrients and Nonessential Elements
• Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycling in Agricultural Systems
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• 10: Trophic Dynamics
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Overview of Trophic Dynamics
• Controls Over Energy Flow through Ecosystems
• Bottom-Up Controls
• Top-Down Controls
• Trophic Effects on Nutrient Cycling
• Ecological Efficiencies
• Trophic Efficiency and Energy Flow
• Consumption Efficiency
• Assimilation Efficiency
• Production Efficiency
• Food Chain Length
• Seasonal and Interannual Patterns
• Nutrient Transfers
• Detritus-Based Trophic Systems
• Integrated Food Webs
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• 11: Species Effects on Ecosystem Processes
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Overview of Species Effects on Ecosystem Processes
• Effect Functional Types
• Species Effects on Biogeochemistry
• Nutrient Supply
• Nutrient Turnover
• Species Effects on Biophysical Processes
• Species Effects on Trophic Interactions
• Species Effects on Disturbance Regime
• Response Functional Types
• Integrating the Effects of Traits on Ecosystems
• Functional Matrix of Multiple Traits
• Linkages Between Response and Effect Traits
• Diversity as Insurance
• Species Interactions and Ecosystem Processes
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• Part III: Patterns
• 12: Temporal Dynamics
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Ecosystem Resilience and Change
• Alternative Stable States
• Resilience and Thresholds
• Sources of Resilience
• Limits to Resilience
• Thresholds and Regime Shifts
• Box 12.1 Resilience and Regime Shifts
• Disturbance
• Conceptual Framework
• Impact of a Disturbance Event
• Recovery and Renewal after Disturbance
• Disturbance Regime
• Succession
• Ecosystem Structure and Composition
• Primary Succession
• Secondary Succession
• Water and Energy Exchange
• Carbon Balance
• Primary Succession
• Secondary Succession
• Nutrient Cycling
• Primary Succession
• Secondary Succession
• Trophic Dynamics
• Temporal Scaling of Ecological Processes
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• 13: Landscape Heterogeneity and Ecosystem Dynamics
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Concepts of Landscape Heterogeneity
• Causes of Spatial Heterogeneity
• Detection and Analysis of Spatial Heterogeneity
• State Factors and Interactive Controls
• Community Processes and Legacies
• Disturbance
• Interactions Among Sources of Heterogeneity
• Patch Interactions on the Landscape
• Topographic and Land–Water Interactions
• Atmospheric Transfers
• Movement of Plants and Animals on the Landscape
• Disturbance Spread
• Human Land-Use Change and Landscape Heterogeneity
• Extensification
• Intensification
• Extrapolation to Larger Scales
• Box 13.1 Spatial Scaling Through Ecological Modeling
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• Part IV: Integration
• 14: Changes in the Earth System
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Human Drivers of Change
• The Global Water Cycle
• Water Pools and Fluxes
• Anthropogenic Changes in the Water Cycle
• Consequences of Changes in the Water Cycle
• The Global Carbon Cycle
• Carbon Pools and Fluxes
• Changes in Atmospheric CO 2
• Marine Sinks for CO 2
• Box 14.1 Partitioning of Carbon Uptake Between the Land and Ocean
• Terrestrial Sinks for CO 2
• CO 2 Effects on Climate
• The Global Methane Budget
• The Global Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen Pools and Fluxes
• Anthropogenic Changes in the Nitrogen Cycle
• The Global Phosphorus Cycle
• Phosphorus Pools and Fluxes
• Anthropogenic Changes in the Phosphorus Cycle
• The Global Sulfur Cycle
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• 15: Managing and Sustaining Ecosystems
• Introduction
• A Focal Issue
• Sustaining Social–Ecological Systems
• Box 15.1 Social-Ecological Interactions and the Flooding of New Orleans
• Sustainability
• Ecological Dimensions of Sustainability
• Box 15.2 Assessing Tradeoffs Among Ecosystem Services: Hydropower Versus Conservation in New Zealand
• Box 15.3 Water Purification for New York City
• Conceptual Framework for Ecosystem Management
• Sustaining Soil Resources
• Sustaining Biodiversity
• Sustaining Variability and Resilience
• Applying Ecosystem Principles to Management
• Forest Management
• Fisheries Management
• Ecosystem Renewal
• Box 15.4 Everglades Restoration Study
• Management for Endangered Species
• Socioeconomic Contexts of Ecosystem Management
• Meeting Human Needs and Wants
• Managing Flows of Ecosystem Services
• Addressing Political Realities
• Innovation and Adaptive Management
• Sustainable Development: Social–Ecological Transformation
• Summary
• Review Questions
• Additional Reading
• Abbreviations
• Glossary
• References
• Index