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• Reading Assessment
• Contents
• Acknowledgments
• Chapter 1 Introduction
• A Field Under Assault
• Integrated Approach
• The Text
• Survey of Knowledge: Assessment and Reading
• Chapter 2 Reading Theory and Stages of Reading Acquisition
• Introduction
• Philosophical Underpinnings: Nature Versus Nurture
• John Locke
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau
• Empiricism and B. F. Skinner
• Inside the Black Box
• Cognitive Revolution
• Noam Chomsky
• Jean Piaget
• Lev Vygotsky
• David Elkind: The Hurried Child
• Legacy to Education
• Whole Language Movement
• John Dewey
• Edmund Burke Huey
• Developmental Approach
• Frank Smith
• Three-Cueing System
• Rebuttal
• The Code Perspective
• Simple View of Reading
• Hollis S. Scarborough’s Rope Model
• McKenna and Stahl’s Modified Cognitive Model
• Models of Reading Acquisition
• Jeanne Chall and the Stages of Reading Development
• Linnea Ehri: Spelling Development and Reading Acquisition
• Spear-Swerling and Sternberg: Readers Off Track
• Conclusion
• Review Questions
• Chapter 3 Oral Language
• Introduction
• The Language of Language
• Language Acquisition
• LAD and LASS
• Social Interactionism
• Language Development Beyond Experience
• Critical Periods in Language Acquisition
• Stages of Language Development
• Infants and Speech
• One-Word Stage
• Putting Words Together: Beginning of Syntax
• Mean Length of Utterance
• Preschool Years
• Language and the School-Age Child
• Communications Disorders
• Articulation and Phonological Disorders
• Voice Disorders
• Fluency Disorders
• Language Disorders
• Special Education Identification
• Conclusion
• Review Questions
• Chapter 4 Linguistic and Cultural Diversity
• Introduction
• Poverty
• Variation in Language
• Dialects and Accents
• Language Differences and Language Disorders
• Bilingualism and Second Language Acquisition
• Diversity Among English-Language Learners
• Dual-Language Learners
• Second Language Acquisition and Reading
• Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
• What It Takes to Acquire a Second Language
• Bilingual Benefits
• Reading Instruction for Bilingual Learners
• Phonological Awareness in English-Language Learners
• Issues Related to Assessment and Instruction
• Assessment of English-Language Learners
• Working With Interpreters
• Using Standardized Tests
• Best Practice in Assessment
• Recommendations
• Conclusion
• Review Questions
• Chapter 5 Statistics and Test Development
• Introduction
• Criterion-Referenced and Norm-Referenced Tests
• Criterion-Referenced Tests
• Norm-Referenced Tests
• Scoring Systems
• Standard Scores
• Percentile Ranks
• Age and Grade Equivalents
• Age Norms and Grade Norms
• Floor and Ceiling Effects of Tests
• Test Development
• Reliability
• Validity
• Test Selection
• Conclusion
• Review Questions
• Chapter 6 Test Administration and Report Writing
• Introduction
• Informed Assessment
• Referral Questions: Teacher, Student, and Parent Concerns
• Background History and Previous Testing
• Hearing and Vision
• Planning the Assessment
• Top-Down Approach to a Comprehensive Reading Evaluation
• Test Administration
• Rapport and Test Session Length
• Test Administration for Beginners
• Learning a New Test for Beginners
• Report Writing and Presentation
• Using a Template
• How to Create a Template
• Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
• Report Appendix
• Turning the Skeleton Into a Human Being
• Report Writing Style
• Proofing the Report
• Presentation of the Report to Parents and Educators
• Conclusion
• Review Questions
• Chapter 7 Response to Intervention
• Introduction
• Brief Historical Perspective on Learning Disabilities and the Law
• Franz Gall
• Nineteenth-Century and Modern Studies of the Brain
• Reading Research on Children
• Legislation Related to Learning Disabilities and Reading
• Concept of a Learning Disability
• Education of the Handicapped Act
• The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975
• Individuals With Disabilities Education Act
• No Child Left Behind
• Individuals With Education Disabilities Improvement Act
• Response to Intervention
• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Studies
• RTI Service Delivery
• Differing Points of View
• Implementing an RTI Model
• Curriculum-Based Measurement
• DIBELS Next
• AIMSweb
• Establishment of a School-Wide System
• Conclusion
• Review Questions
• Chapter 8 Role of Intellectual Assessment
• Introduction
• Intelligence: What It Is and What It Is Not
• Measuring How Smart We Are
• Beginnings
• Wechsler Scales
• Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory
• Theory Meets Assessment
• Cross Battery Assessment
• Abilities Measured in IQ Tests and How They Relate to Reading
• Misunderstandings About Learning Styles
• Small Sample of Intelligence Tests
• Differential Ability Scales, Second Edition
• Leiter International Performance Scale—Revised
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (2003)
• Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities, Third Edition
• Conclusion
• Questions to Ask Evaluators AboutCognitive Testing
• Chapter 9 Oral Language Assessment
• Introduction
• Assessment of Oral Language
• Listening Comprehension
• Listening Comprehension Advantages
• A Few Words on Words
• Word Structure
• Word Meaning
• How Vocabulary Is Assessed
• Syntax
• How Syntax Is Assessed
• Discourse-Level Skills
• Discourse-Level Skills: How They Are Assessed
• Pragmatics
• Pragmatic Skills: How They Are Assessed
• Scholastic Language
• Basic Concepts: How They Are Assessed
• Conclusion
• Review Questions
• Chapter 10 Underlying Processes
• Introduction
• Dyslexia
• Phonological and Phonemic Awareness
• Delays in Reading
• Phonetics
• Phonemics
• Link Between Vocabulary and Phonological Awareness
• Developmental Sequence
• Assessment of Phonological Awareness
• Phonological Memory
• Assessment of Phonological Memory
• What Is Rapid Naming?
• RAN Is Not Without Controversy
• Double Deficit
• How RAN Is Assessed
• Orthographic Processing
• Assessment of Orthographic Processing
• Suggestions for Assessing Underlying Processes
• Instructional Implications and Recommendations
• Conclusion
• Review Questions
• Chapter 11 Decoding
• Introduction
• The High Road and the LowRoad: The Dual Route Model
• Dual Route and Dyslexia
• You Say ‘‘Orthographic’’ and I Say ‘‘Phonologic’’
• What Technology Has to Tell Us
• Implications for Instruction
• Print Awareness
• Emergent Literacy
• Print Awareness as a Predictor
• How Print Awareness Is Assessed
• Alphabet Knowledge
• Letter Names and Learning to Read
• How Letter Names Are Learned
• How Letters Name and Sounds Are Assessed
• Word Recognition
• How Word Recognition Skills Develop
• How Word Identification Is Assessed
• Record Keeping
• Nonsense Words
• Why Nonsense Words Are Important
• Error Analysis
• Syllable Patterns
• Nonsense Word List and Performance of Three Students
• Quick Lesson in Syllable Division
• Beyond the Six Syllable Patterns
• Eye Movements and Tracking
• Perceptual Span
• Eye Movements
• Eye Movements During Reading
• Fluency
• Fluency Versus Automaticity
• Definitions of Fluency
• Word Callers
• How Fluency Is Assessed
• Recording Oral Reading Performance
• Measuring Reading Fluency in the Classroom
• Prosody
• Prosody and Language Processing
• Prosody’s Role in Reading
• How Prosody Is Assessed
• Recommendations for Instruction
• Conclusion
• Review Questions
• Chapter 12 Comprehension
• Introduction
• Fourth-Grade Slump
• Kintsch Model of Reading Comprehension
• The Textbase and the Situation Model
• Text Is Almost Never Fully Explicit
• Inferential Thinking
• Role of Experience
• Levels of Inferential Thinking
• Working Memory and Comprehension
• How Working Memory Supports Comprehension
• Role of Practice
• Background Knowledge
• Activation
• Cycle of Learning
• Vocabulary
• Vocabulary and Word Recognition
• Vocabulary Breadth and Depth
• Vocabulary and Academic Success
• Learning New Vocabulary
• How Reading Comprehension Is Assessed
• Measuring Understanding
• Reading Comprehension Tests Measure Different Skills
• Different Tests of Reading Comprehension
• Test Factors That Warrant Consideration
• Different Types of Questions
• Suggestions for Assessing Reading Comprehension
• Instructional Implications and Recommendations
• Conclusion
• Review Questions
• Chapter 13 Informal Inventories and Readability
• Introduction
• What Informal Reading Inventories Are
• Levels of Reading Skill
• Reading Level Criticism
• Is a Test Ever Not a Test?
• Informal Is Not a Synonym for ‘‘Exempt From Considerations of Reliability and Validity’’
• Miscue Analysis
• Repetitions and Self-Corrections
• Running Records
• IRI Word Lists
• IRI Passages
• What About the Questions?
• Readability Applications Outside of the Classroom
• Readability History
• Readability, Comprehension, and Prediction
• Factors Affecting Readability
• New Dale-Chall Readability Formula
• SMOG Readability Formula
• Online Options for Readability
• Recommendations and Considerations in the Practice of Informal Assessment
• Conclusions
• Review Questions
• Chapter 14 Written Expression and Spelling
• Introduction
• Issues in the Definition of Writing
• Developmental Output Failure and Handwriting
• Writing and Expressive Language Skill
• Role of Working Memory
• Issues in Assessment
• Assessment of Writing Is a Cognitive Process
• Spelling
• A Little on the History of English
• Issues in the Assessment of Spelling
• Handwriting
• Process for Evaluating Writing Samples
• Process for Evaluating Writing Samples
• Example of Informal Writing Assessment: Toby
• Recommendations
• Spelling
• Handwriting
• Writing
• Conclusion
• Review Questions
• Chapter 15 Last Words
• Appendix A: Answer Key
• Appendix B: Glossary
• References
• Additional Resources
• Author Index
• Subject Index