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• Cover
• Half Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Preface to the Sixth Edition
• Acknowledgments
• Authors
• In Memory of Morten Meilgaard, D.Sc.
• In Memory of Clare A. Dus
• 1 Introduction to Sensory Techniques
• 1.0 Learning Objectives
• 1.1 Introduction
• 1.2 History and Development of Sensory Evaluation
• 1.3 The Science of Sensory
• 1.3.1 Human Assessors as Instruments
• 1.3.2 The Process of Sensory Perception
• 1.4 The Sensory Toolbox
• 1.5 Applications of Sensory Evaluation
• 1.6 Designing and Conducting a Sensory Study
• References
• 2 Physiology: Sensory Attributes and the Way We Perceive Them
• 2.0 Learning Objectives
• 2.1 Introduction
• 2.2 Sense of Sight (Vision)
• 2.2.1 Physiological Basis of Vision
• 2.2.2 Individual Differences
• 2.2.3 Application to Sensory Evaluation – Appearance
• 2.2.4 Appearance Attributes
• 2.3 Sense of Hearing (Audition)
• 2.3.1 Physiological Basis of Audition
• 2.3.2 Individual Differences
• 2.3.3 Application to Sensory Evaluation – Sound
• 2.3.4 Sound Attributes
• 2.4 Sense of Touch (Somesthesis)
• 2.4.1 Physiological Basis of Touch
• 2.4.2 Individual Differences
• 2.4.3 Application to Sensory Evaluation – Texture and Feel
• 2.4.4 Texture and Feel Attributes
• 2.5 Sense of Smell (Olfaction)
• 2.5.1 Physiological Basis of Olfaction
• 2.5.2 Individual Differences
• 2.5.3 Application to Sensory Evaluation – Aroma, Flavor, Fragrance
• 2.5.4 Odor Attributes
• 2.6 Sense of Taste (Gustation)
• 2.6.1 Physiological Basis of Gustation
• 2.6.2 Individual Differences
• 2.6.3 Application to Sensory Evaluation – Basic Tastes
• 2.6.4 Basic Taste Attributes
• 2.7 Chemesthesis
• 2.7.1 Physiological Basis of Chemesthesis
• 2.7.2 Individual Differences
• 2.7.3 Application to Sensory Evaluation – Chemical Feeling Factors
• 2.7.4 Chemical Feeling Factor Attributes
• 2.8 Flavor Perception and Other Cross-Modal Interactions
• References
• 3 Psychophysics
• 3.0 Learning Objectives
• 3.1 Introduction
• 3.2 Psychophysics and Sensory Evaluation
• 3.2.1 Fechner’s Law
• 3.2.2 Stevens’ Law
• 3.2.3 Beidler Model
• 3.2.4 Thurstonian Theory
• 3.2.5 Signal Detection Theory
• 3.3 Sensory Thresholds
• 3.3.1 Definitions
• 3.3.2 Methods of Threshold Determination
• 3.4 Factors Influencing Sensory Verdicts
• 3.4.1 Physiological Factors
• 3.4.2 Psychological Factors
• 3.4.3 Poor Physical Condition
• References
• 4 Facility Design and Test Controls
• 4.0 Learning Objectives
• 4.1 Introduction
• 4.2 Facility Design
• 4.2.1 Facility Layout
• 4.2.2 General Design Factors
• 4.3 Product Controls
• 4.3.1 Sensory Technicians
• 4.3.2 Sample Preparation
• 4.3.3 Sample Presentation
• 4.3.4 Product Sampling
• 4.4 Assessor Controls
• 4.4.1 Training or Orientation
• 4.4.2 Time of Day
• 4.4.3 Testing Environment
• Appendix: Considerations for Selecting External Testing Facilities
• References
• 5 Data Collection and Management
• 5.0 Learning Objectives
• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.2 Sensory Measurement and Data Collection
• 5.2.1 Types of Data
• 5.2.2 Methods for Measuring Sensory Responses
• 5.2.3 Scales Used in Sensory Evaluation
• 5.3 Data Management
• 5.3.1 Importance of Data Management
• 5.3.2 The Data Life Cycle
• 5.3.3 Data Collection
• 5.3.4 Data Storage
• 5.3.5 Data Processing and Cleaning
• 5.3.6 Data Control
• References
• 6 Overall Discrimination Tests
• 6.0 Learning Objectives
• 6.1 Introduction
• 6.2 Test Planning
• 6.2.1 Assessors in Discrimination Tests
• 6.2.2 Test Parameters
• 6.2.3 Test Controls
• 6.2.4 Data Analysis
• 6.3 Methods
• 6.3.1 Tetrad Test
• 6.3.2 Triangle Test
• 6.3.3 Duo-Trio Test
• 6.3.4 Two-Out-of-Five Test
• 6.3.5 Same/Different Test (or Simple Difference Test)
• 6.3.6 “A”–“not A” Test
• 6.3.7 Difference-from-Control Test
• 6.3.8 Sequential Tests
• 6.3.9 Replicated Tests
• References
• 7 Attribute Discrimination Tests
• 7.0 Learning Objectives
• 7.1 Introduction
• 7.2 Directional Difference Test: Comparing Two Samples
• 7.2.1 Scope and Application
• 7.2.2 Assessors
• 7.2.3 Test Procedure
• 7.2.4 Analysis and Interpretation of Results
• 7.3 Specified Tetrad Test: Comparing Two Samples on a Specified Attribute Using the Method of Tetrads
• 7.3.1 Scope and Application
• 7.3.2 Test Procedure
• 7.3.3 Analysis and Interpretation of Results
• 7.4 Pairwise Ranking Test: Comparing Several Samples in All Possible Pairs
• 7.4.1 Scope and Application
• 7.4.2 Test Procedure
• 7.4.3 Analysis and Interpretation of Results
• 7.5 Introduction: Multisample Difference Tests – Block Designs
• 7.5.1 Randomized (Complete) Block Designs
• 7.5.2 Balanced Incomplete Block (BIB) Designs
• 7.6 Multisample Difference Tests – Methods
• 7.6.1 Simple Ranking Test, Randomized (Complete) Block Design
• 7.6.2 Rating Approach, Randomized (Complete) Block Design
• 7.6.3 BIB Ranking Test, Balanced Incomplete Block Design
• 7.6.4 BIB Rating Approach, Balanced Incomplete Block Design
• References
• 8 Selection and Training of Panel Members
• 8.0 Learning Objectives
• 8.1 Introduction
• 8.2 Panel Development
• 8.2.1 Personnel
• 8.2.2 Facilities
• 8.2.3 Investment
• 8.3 Selection and Training of Panelists for Discrimination Tests
• 8.3.1 Selection
• 8.3.2 Training
• 8.4 Selection and Training of Panelists for Descriptive Testing
• 8.4.1 Recruiting
• 8.4.2 Selection
• 8.4.3 Training
• 8.4.4 Validation
• 8.5 Panel Performance and Motivation
• 8.5.1 Discrimination Panel Performance
• 8.5.2 Overall Panel Performance – Descriptive Analysis
• 8.5.3 Individual Panelist Performance – Descriptive Analysis
• 8.5.4 Panelist Feedback, Rewards, and Motivation
• 8.5.5 Panel Maintenance and Troubleshooting
• References
• 9 Descriptive Analysis Techniques
• 9.0 Learning Objectives
• 9.1 Introduction
• 9.2 Field of Application
• 9.3 Components of Descriptive Analysis
• 9.3.1 Characteristics: The Qualitative Aspect
• 9.3.2 Intensity: The Quantitative Aspect
• 9.3.3 Order of Appearance: The Time Aspect
• 9.3.4 Overall Impression: The Integrated Aspect
• 9.4 Commonly Used Descriptive Test Methods with Trained Panels
• 9.4.1 Flavor Profile Method
• 9.4.2 Texture Profile Method
• 9.4.3 Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA®) Method
• 9.4.4 Spectrum Descriptive Analysis Method
• 9.4.5 Temporal Methods of Descriptive Analysis
• 9.5 Commonly Used Descriptive Test Methods with Untrained Panels
• 9.5.1 Free-Choice Profiling
• 9.5.2 Flash Profiling
• 9.5.3 Projective Mapping (Napping)
• 9.5.4 Sorting
• 9.5.5 Polarized Sensory Positioning
• 9.5.6 Free-JAR
• 9.6 Application of Descriptive Analysis Panel Data
• References
• 10 Spectrum Descriptive Analysis
• 10.0 Learning Objectives
• 10.1 Introduction: Designing a Descriptive Method
• 10.1.1 History
• 10.1.2 Philosophy
• 10.2 Core Tenets of Spectrum Descriptive Analysis
• 10.2.1 Core Tenet 1: A Good Panel Leader is Essential
• 10.2.2 Core Tenet 2: Panelists are Highly Trained
• 10.2.3 Core Tenet 3: The Panel is Cared For
• 10.2.4 Core Tenet 4: A Universal Scaling Framework is Used
• 10.2.5 Core Tenet 5: Attributes are Clearly Defined
• 10.2.6 Core Tenet 6: References are Used
• 10.2.7 Core Tenet 7: Data are Regularly Checked for Quality
• 10.2.8 Core Tenet 8: Data are Interpreted
• 10.2.9 Core Tenet 9: Support Systems are in Place
• 10.3 Spectrum Terminology and Lexicon Development
• 10.3.1 The Process
• 10.3.2 A Note on Texture Terms
• 10.3.3 Published Lexicons
• 10.4 Evaluation Protocols
• 10.5 Intensity: Universal Scaling Framework
• 10.5.1 Universal Scaling of Texture Attributes
• 10.5.2 Features of Universally Scaled Data
• 10.6 Analysis and Interpretation of Spectrum Descriptive Analysis Data
• 10.6.1 What Makes Spectrum Method Descriptive Data Different?
• 10.6.2 Individual vs. Consensus Data Collection
• 10.6.3 Analysis Techniques
• 10.6.4 Connecting Technical Terms to Consumer Terms
• 10.7 Modified Spectrum Descriptive Analysis
• 10.8 Advanced Applications of Spectrum Descriptive Analysis
• 10.8.1 Degree of Difference
• 10.8.2 Complexes
• 10.8.3 Integrated Terms
• 10.8.4 Sensory Quality and Shelf-Life
• 10.8.5 Malodor Testing
• 10.9 Combining Spectrum Descriptive Data with Other Sources of Data
• 10.9.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Consumer Data
• 10.9.2 Instrumental Data
• Appendix 10.1 Spectrum Terminology for Descriptive Analysis (Appearance)
• 10.1a Optical Characteristics
• 10.1b Physical Characteristics
• Appendix 10.2 Spectrum Terminology for Descriptive Analysis (Food and Beverage Flavor)
• 10.2a Aroma and Aromatics
• 10.2b Basic Tastes
• 10.2c Chemical Feeling Factors
• Appendix 10.3 Spectrum Terminology for Descriptive Analysis (Food Texture)
• 10.3a Semi-Solid Foods
• 10.3b Solid Foods
• 10.3c Liquids
• 10.3d Residual Texture
• Appendix 10.4 Spectrum Terminology for Descriptive Analysis (Fragrance and Malodor)
• 10.4a Grape Juice Intensity Scale for Aroma
• 10.4b Common Fragrance Terms
• 10.4c Common Malodor Terms
• Appendix 10.5 Spectrum Terminology for Descriptive Analysis (Hand/Body Lotion Protocol and References)
• 10.5a Appearance
• 10.5b Pick Up
• 10.5c Rub Out
• 10.5d Afterfeel (Immediate) Additional Time Points 5, 10, 15, or 20 Minutes as Needed
• Appendix 10.6 Spectrum Terminology for Descriptive Analysis (Paper Protocol and References)
• Appendix 10.7 Spectrum Terminology for Descriptive Analysis (Hair Shampoo Protocol and References)
• 10.7a Appearance
• 10.7b Pick Up
• 10.7c Application and Lather Evaluation
• 10.7d Rinsing Procedure and Wet Tress Evaluation
• 10.7e Drying Procedure and Dry Tress Evaluation
• References
• 11 Affective Testing: Product Research with Consumers
• 11.0 Learning Objectives
• 11.1 Introduction
• 11.2 Applications of Affective Testing
• 11.2.1 Product Maintenance and Quality Control
• 11.2.2 Product Improvement and Optimization
• 11.2.3 New Product Development
• 11.2.4 Innovation, Including at the Fuzzy Front End
• 11.2.5 Assessment of Market Potential
• 11.2.6 Competitive Intelligence: Category Review/Benchmarking
• 11.2.7 Communication and Advertising Claims Support
• 11.3 Considerations When Designing Product Research with Consumers
• 11.3.1 Choosing the Right Method
• 11.3.2 Selecting Stimuli/Samples for the Research
• 11.3.3 Selecting Participants for the Research
• 11.3.4 Choosing the Most Relevant Venue/Context for Testing
• 11.4 Quantitative Consumer Research in Practice
• 11.4.1 Applications
• 11.4.2 Design Considerations for Quantitative Affective Tests
• 11.4.3 Types of Quantitative Affective Tests
• 11.5 Qualitative Research in Practice
• 11.5.1 Applications
• 11.5.2 Design Considerations for Qualitative Affective Tests
• 11.5.3 Types of Qualitative Affective Tests
• 11.5.4 Interpreting Results
• 11.6 Consumer Research in Conjunction with Other Sensory Techniques
• References
• 12 Basic Statistical Methods
• 12.0 Learning Objectives
• 12.1 Introduction
• 12.2 Summarizing Sensory Data
• 12.2.1 Summary Analysis of Data in the Form of Ratings
• 12.2.2 Estimating the Proportion of a Population That Possesses a Particular Characteristic
• 12.2.3 Confidence Intervals on μ and p
• 12.2.4 Other Interval Estimates
• 12.2.5 Data Transformations
• 12.3 Statistical Hypothesis Testing
• 12.3.1 Statistical Hypotheses
• 12.3.2 One-Sided and Two-Sided Hypotheses
• 12.3.3 Type I and Type II Errors
• 12.3.4 Examples: Tests on Means, Standard Deviations, and Proportions
• 12.4 Statistical Design of Sensory Panel Studies
• 12.4.1 Sampling: Replication versus Multiple Observations
• 12.4.2 Blocking an Experimental Design
• 12.4.3 Randomized (Complete) Block Designs
• 12.4.4 Balanced Incomplete Block Designs
• 12.4.5 Latin-Square Designs
• 12.4.6 Split-Plot Designs
• 12.4.7 A Simultaneous Multiple Comparison Procedure
• Appendix 12.1 Probability
• Appendix 12.1A Normal Distribution
• Appendix 12.1B Binomial Distribution
• References
• 13 Advanced Statistical Methods
• 13.0 Learning Objectives
• 13.1 Introduction
• 13.2 Data Relationships
• 13.2.1 All Independent Variables
• 13.2.2 Dependent and Independent Variables
• 13.3 Preference Mapping
• 13.3.1 Internal Preference Mapping
• 13.3.2 External Preference Mapping
• 13.3.3 Partial Least-Squares Mapping
• 13.4 Treatment Structure of an Experimental Design
• 13.4.1 Factorial Treatment Structures
• 13.4.2 Fractional Factorials and Screening Studies
• 13.4.3 Conjoint Analysis
• 13.4.4 Response Surface Methodology
• References
• 14 Guidelines for Choice of Technique
• 14.1 Introduction
• 14.2 Define the Project Objective
• 14.3 Define the Test Objective
• 14.4 Review Project Objective and Test Objectives: Revise Test Design as Needed
• 15 Guidelines for Reporting Results
• 15.0 Learning Objectives
• 15.1 Introduction
• 15.1.1 Qualities of a Good Report
• 15.1.2 Types of Reports
• 15.2 Anatomy of the Report
• 15.2.1 Part 1: Summary or Abstract
• 15.2.2 Part 2: Objectives and Introduction
• 15.2.3 Part 3: Materials and Methods
• 15.2.4 Part 4: Results and Discussion
• 15.3 Graphical Presentation of Data
• 15.3.1 Introduction
• 15.3.2 General Guidelines for Graphing Data
• 15.3.3 Common Graphs and Examples
• 15.4 Example Reports (Tables 15.2 Through 15.4)
• References
• 16 Sensory Evaluation in Quality Assurance/Quality Control
• 16.0 Learning Objectives
• 16.1 Introduction
• 16.1.1 What Is Quality, and Why Is It Important?
• 16.1.2 The Quality Ecosystem
• 16.1.3 The Role of Sensory in Quality
• 16.1.4 Stakeholder Groups in a QA/QC Program
• 16.1.5 General Design Principles of a Sensory Quality Program
• 16.1.6 Overview: Choice of Methodology
• 16.2 Starting the Journey – Gathering Information for the Sensory Quality Program
• 16.2.1 Defining Program Objectives
• 16.2.2 Understanding the Product(s)
• 16.2.3 Gathering Information about Current Production Processes
• 16.2.4 Understanding Resource Needs
• 16.2.5 Anticipating Implementation Challenges
• 16.3 Defining Sensory Quality Parameters
• 16.3.1 Choosing Control Points
• 16.3.2 Putting Together a Team
• 16.3.3 Understanding Product Variability
• 16.3.4 Defining the Control Product
• 16.3.5 Reviewing Key Defects
• 16.3.6 Decision-Making
• 16.3.7 Establishing Specifications and Action Standards
• 16.4 Choosing the Right Methodology
• 16.5 Three Methods Commonly Used In Sensory Quality Programs
• 16.5.1 In-Out
• 16.5.2 Difference from Control
• 16.5.3 Attribute Descriptive
• 16.6 Program Implementation
• 16.6.1 Ensuring Program Success
• 16.6.2 Panelist Selection and Training
• 16.6.3 Sampling
• 16.6.4 Documentation and Reporting Procedures
• 16.6.5 Escalation Procedures
• 16.6.6 Ongoing Program Monitoring and Maintenance
• 16.7 Controls, References, And Gold Standards
• 16.7.1 Selecting a Control Sample
• 16.7.2 Control Storage and Renewal
• 16.8 Special Considerations
• 16.8.1 Sensory Quality for Personal and Home Care Products
• 16.8.2 Working with Co-Manufacturers
• 16.8.3 Highly Perishable Products
• References
• 17 Advanced Consumer Research Techniques
• 17.0 Learning Objectives
• 17.1 Introduction
• 17.2 Uncovering Unarticulated Needs at the Front End of Innovation
• 17.2.1 Definition and Purpose
• 17.2.2 Applications
• 17.2.3 Tools and Techniques
• 17.2.4 Design of Research
• 17.2.5 Data Analysis and Mining
• 17.3 Exploring Consumer Experiences and Choices through the Product Lifecycle
• 17.3.1 Definition and Purpose
• 17.3.2 Applications
• 17.3.3 Tools and Techniques
• 17.3.4 Design of Research
• 17.3.5 Data Analysis and Mining
• 17.4 Commissioning the Consumer in the Design of New Products
• 17.4.1 Definition and Purpose
• 17.4.2 Applications
• 17.4.3 Tools and Techniques
• 17.5 Product Renovation: Capturing the Iconic Experience
• 17.5.1 Definition and Purpose
• 17.5.2 Applications
• 17.5.3 Tools and Techniques
• 17.5.4 Design of Research
• 17.5.5 Data Analysis and Mining
• 17.6 Benefit Perception Beyond Liking
• 17.6.1 Definition and Purpose
• 17.6.2 Applications
• 17.6.3 Tools and Techniques
• 17.6.4 Design of Research
• 17.7 Category Appraisals, Key Drivers Studies, Preference Mapping, and Sensory Segmentation
• 17.7.1 Definition and Purpose
• 17.7.2 Applications
• 17.7.3 Tools and Techniques
• 17.7.4 Design of Research
• 17.8 Use of Consumer Data to Inform Shelf Life or Quality Assurance Limits
• 17.8.1 Definition and Purpose
• 17.8.2 Applications
• 17.8.3 Tools and Techniques
• 17.8.4 Design of Research
• 17.9 Substantiation of Advertising Claims
• 17.9.1 Introduction
• 17.9.2 Types of Claims
• 17.9.3 Types of Claims Testing
• 17.9.4 Managing the Claims Process
• 17.9.5 Cautions and Things to Consider
• 17.10 Additional Resources
• References
• 18 Statistical Tables
• Table 18.1 Random Orders of the Digits 1–9: Arranged in Groups of Three Columns
• Table 18.2 Standard Normal Distribution
• Table 18.3 Upper-α Probability Points of Student’s t-Distribution (Entries are tα:ν)
• Table 18.4 Percentage Points of the Studentized Range: Upper-α Critical Values for Tukey’s HSD Multiple Comparison Procedure Instructions
• Table 18.5 Upper-α Probability Points of χ2-Distribution (Entries are χ2α:ν)
• Table 18.6 Upper-α Probability Points of F-Distribution (Entries are Fα:ν1, ν2)
• 19 Practical Sensory Problems
• 19.1 Introduction
• Appendix 19.1 Moderator Guide for Grated Italian Cheese Groups (Scenario 4)
• References
• Index