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• Cover Page
• Half Title page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Preface
• Author Bios
• Section 1 Introduction to Research and Measurement
• 1 Research Approaches
• Important Terms
• Applied Research
• Integrating Science into Educational and Clinical Practice
• Participatory Action Research
• Evidence-Based Practice
• Characterizing Designs
• Attributions of Causality
• Assumptions about Generalizability
• Process versus Procedure Questions
• Research Approach
• Conclusion
• References
• 2 External Validity and Generalizable Knowledge
• Important Terms
• External Validity
• Replication
• Parsing Critical from Non-Critical Features via Across-Study Replication
• Tactics for Maximizing the Impact of an Across-Study Replication
• Considerations Relevant to External Validity
• Related Constructs
• Ecological Validity
• Construct Validity
• Recommendations for Across-Study Replications
• Conclusion
• References
• 3 Establishing Internal Validity via Within-Study Replication
• Important Terms
• Within-Study Replication
• Internal Validity
• Threats to Internal Validity
• Conclusions
• References
• 4 Selection, Characterization, and Measurement of Dependent Variables
• Important Terms
• Choosing and Defining Behaviors
• Characterizing Behaviors
• Reversible and Non-Reversible Behaviors
• Behaviors of Long and Short Duration
• Trial-Based versus Free-Operant Behaviors
• Selecting a Data Recording Procedure
• Continuous Recording Systems
• Event and Timed Event Recording to Measure Count
• Duration and Latency Recording to Measure Time
• Estimating Count and Duration with Interval-Based Systems
• Partial Interval Recording
• Whole Interval Recording
• Momentary Time Sampling
• Variations in Use of Interval Systems
• Comparisons Among Interval-Based Systems
• Illustration of Accuracy for Behaviors with Non-Trivial Durations
• Illustration of Accuracy for Behaviors with Trivial Durations
• Reporting Use of Interval Systems
• Data Collection
• Planning and Conducting Data Collection
• Using Technology
• Collecting Data on More than One Behavior
• Conclusions
• References
• 5 Reliability and Validity of Dependent Variables
• Important Terms
• Validity
• Accuracy
• Reliability
• Ensuring Reliability and Validity of Data Collection
• Operationalize Behaviors
• Pilot Data Collection Procedures
• Train Observers
• Use Naïve Observers
• Collect IOA Data
• Analyze IOA Data and Conduct Discrepancy Discussions
• Calculate Agreement
• Report Agreement
• Calculating Interobserver Agreement
• Percentage Agreement
• Kappa
• Conclusions
• References
• 6 Development and Measurement of Independent Variables
• Important Terms
• Planning Study Conditions Using a Theory of Change
• Different Ways to Approach Condition Design
• Evaluation of Procedures versus Evaluation of Processes
• Static versus Dynamic Condition Design
• Cascading Logic Models
• Measurement of Fidelity
• Defining Experimental Conditions
• Types of Fidelity
• Formative Analysis
• Summative Analysis
• Reporting Fidelity
• Conclusions
• References
• 7 Measuring Generality and Social Validity in Single Case Research
• Important Terms
• Generality
• Domains of Performance Relevant to Generality
• Measurement of Generalized Behavior Change
• Terminology, Mechanisms, and Theory of Change
• Social Validity
• Social Validity Stakeholders
• Measurement Strategies and Recommendations
• Generality and Social Validity: The State of the Field
• A Case for Mixed Methods Research
• Conclusions
• References
• 8 Data Representation and Performance Characteristics
• Important Terms
• Data Representation
• Figures in Single Case Design Studies
• Tables in Single Case Design Studies
• Describing Participant Performance
• Level
• Trend
• Variability
• Immediacy
• Overlap
• Consistency
• Conclusions
• References
• Section 2 Single Case Designs
• 9 Conducting Studies Using Sequential Introduction and Withdrawal of Conditions
• Important Terms
• Features of Sequential Introduction and Withdrawal Designs
• When to Use Sequential Introduction and Withdrawal Designs
• Strengths and Benefits
• Weaknesses and Drawbacks of SIW Designs
• A-B-A-B Designs
• Reversal Variation
• Procedural Steps
• Multitreatment Design
• Procedural Steps
• Threats to Internal Validity
• Special Case: Changing Criterion Designs
• Procedural Steps
• Internal Validity for Changing Criterion Designs
• Conclusions
• References
• 10 Analyzing Data from Studies Using Sequential Introduction and Withdrawal of Conditions
• Important Terms
• Formative Analysis and Phase Change Decisions
• Summative Analysis and Functional Relation Determination
• Design Adequacy
• Data Adequacy
• Control for Likely Threats to Internal Validity
• Outcome Evaluation
• Supplementary Analyses
• Magnitude Estimates
• Overlap Estimates
• Describing Visual Analysis
• Visual Analysis Procedures
• Visual Analysis Results
• Conclusions
• References
• 11 Conducting Studies Using Time-lagged Condition Ordering
• Important Terms
• Features of Time-Lagged Designs
• Intervention Targets (Participants, Behaviors, Contexts)
• Concurrence Variations
• When to Use Time-Lagged Designs
• Strengths and Benefits of Time-Lagged Designs
• Weaknesses and Drawbacks of Time-Lagged Designs
• Multiple Baseline Designs
• Multiple Probe Designs
• Procedural Steps for MB and MP Designs
• Threats to Internal Validity for Time-Lagged Design Family
• Conclusions
• References
• 12 Analyzing Data from Studies Using Time-Lagged Conditions
• Important Terms
• Formative Analysis and Phase Change Decisions
• Summative Analysis and Functional Relation Determination
• Design Adequacy
• Data Sufficiency
• Control for Likely Threats to Internal Validity
• Outcome Evaluation
• Supplemental Analyses
• Describing Visual Analysis
• Visual Analysis Procedures
• Visual Analysis Results
• Conclusions
• References
• 13 Conducting Studies Using Rapid Iterative Alternation of Conditions
• Important Terms
• Features of Designs Using Rapid Iterative Alternation
• When to Use Designs with Rapid Iterative Alternation
• Strengths and Benefits
• Weaknesses and Drawbacks
• Multielement-Alternating Treatments Design
• Procedural Steps
• Adapted Alternating Treatments Design
• Selecting and Assigning Sets
• Procedural Steps
• Repeated Acquisition Design
• Threats to Internal Validity
• Assessing Social Validity Using Simultaneous Treatments
• Conclusions
• References
• 14 Analyzing Data from Studies Using Rapid Iterative Alternation
• Important Terms
• Formative Analysis and Phase Change Decisions
• Summative Analysis and Functional Relation Determination
• Design Adequacy
• Data Adequacy
• Control for Common Threats to Internal Validity
• Outcomes Evaluation
• Supplemental Analyses
• Supplemental Analyses for ME-ATDs
• Supplemental Analyses for AATDs and Repeated Acquisition Designs
• Describing Visual Analysis
• Visual Analysis Procedures
• Visual Analysis Results
• Conclusions
• References
• 15 Selecting and Combining Single Case Designs
• Important Terms
• Combination Designs
• Types of Combinations
• Summary
• Design Selection
• Choosing Between ME-ATD Designs and SIW Design Variations
• Choosing Between SIW/ME-ATD Designs and Time-Lagged Design Variations
• Choosing Among Time-Lagged Variations
• Choosing Between AATD and Repeated Acquisition Designs
• Conclusions
• References
• Section 3 Ethics, Rigor, and Writing
• 16 Ethical Principles and Practices in Research
• Important Terms
• History of Ethics in Applied Research
• Ethical Considerations When Conducting Research in Applied Settings
• Fully Informed Participants
• Consent and Assent
• Outcomes that Benefit the Participant Versus the Field
• Conflicts of Interest
• Confidentiality
• Equity
• Culturally Responsive Research
• Formal Approvals to Conduct Research
• Site-Specific Approval
• University Institutional Review Board
• Considerations for IRB Applications
• Special Populations
• Potential Risk
• Defining Methods and Procedures
• Data Storage and Confidentiality
• Informed Consent and Assent Procedures
• Sharing of Information
• Researcher Expertise
• Ethical Practice
• Publication Ethics and Reporting of Results
• Authorship
• Reporting Results
• Conclusions
• References
• 17 Evaluating Single Case Research
• Important Terms
• Internal Validity, Rigor, and Risk of Bias
• Critical Characteristics of Single Case Studies
• Design Appropriateness
• Potential Demonstrations of Effect
• Reliability
• Fidelity
• Data Sufficiency
• Potentially Important Characteristics
• Generality and Applicability
• Randomization
• Resources for Characterizing Rigor
• CEC-DR Evidence-Based Practice Paper (2005)
• RoBiNT Scale (2013) and Updated Algorithm (2019)
• CEC Standards for Evidence-Based Practice (2014)
• Single Case Reporting Guideline in Behavioral Interventions (2016)
• Risk of Bias Tool (2017)
• Comparative Single Case Experimental Design Rating System (2018)
• WWC Procedures and Standards Handbook (2020)
• CEC-DR Next Generation Guidelines (2023)
• Single Case Analysis and Review Framework v 3.1 (2023)
• QualiCase (2023)
• Examples of Use
• Questionable Research Practices
• Conclusions
• References
• 18 Writing Research Proposals and Empirical Reports
• Important Terms
• Scientific Writing
• Writing Research Questions
• Finding Research Topics
• Moving from Topics to Questions
• Classifying and Stating Research Questions
• Writing Research Proposals
• Why Write Research Proposals?
• Primary Sections
• Writing Empirical Reports
• Why Write Empirical Reports?
• Primary Sections
• Considerations for Success
• Conclusions
• References
• 19 Conducting Systematic Reviews and Syntheses
• Important Terms
• Literature Reviews
• Approaches and Procedures
• Types of Literature Reviews
• Process of Conducting Literature Reviews
• Organizing Findings and Writing the Review
• Using the Literature Review
• PRISMA Guidelines
• PRISMA 2020 Statement, Checklist, and Flow Diagram
• PRISMA Protocol
• PRISMA Extensions
• Considerations for Success
• Conclusions
• References
• Index