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• Half Title
• Title
• Copyright
• Brief Table of Contents
• Contents
• 1 A Child Learns to Read: Process and Product
• In the Classroom
• What Is Reading?
• Theories of Reading Acquisition
• Nonstage Theory
• Stage Theory
• Cueing Systems
• The Grapho-Phonological System
• The Syntactic (Sound Stream of Language) System
• The Semantic System
• The Pragmatic System
• The Reading Process
• Skills Used in the Reading Process
• Using Letter–Sound Relationships
• Acquiring a Sight Vocabulary
• Gaining Meaning From Context
• Characteristics of the Reading Process
• Reading Is a Holistic Process
• Reading Is a Constructive Process
• Reading Is a Strategic Process
• Reading Is an Interactive Process
• Reading and Writing Are Synergistic Processes
• The Reading Process and Learners Who Are Diverse
• The Reading Product
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 2 A Quest for Balance: Moving Forward
• In the Classroom
• Introduction
• The History of Early Literacy
• Skills-Based versus Holistic Approach
• Standards-Based Education
• Approaches to Teaching Reading
• Phonics Instruction and the Transmission Model
• The Positive Role of Phonics Instruction
• Holistic Instruction and the Transactional Model
• A Quest for Balance: A Comprehensive Approach
• Balance and Teaching to Standards
• The Impact of Technology on Literacy
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 3 Emergent Literacy: From Birth to Conventional Literacy
• In the Classroom
• Introduction
• Language Acquisition: An Overview
• Prebirth
• Infancy
• The Holographic Stage
• The Telegraphic Stage
• Preschool to Fluency
• Primary Grades
• Literacy’s Beginnings
• Reading Is Enjoyable
• Books Should Be Handled in Special Ways
• Book and Story Sharing Involve a Routine
• Illustrations Represent Real Things
• Printed Words Have Meaning
• Reading Readiness: A Retrospective
• Overview of Emergent Literacy
• Use of the Term Emergent Literacy
• Activities for Letter Recognition
• Key Components of Emergent Literacy
• Intelligence
• Chronological Age
• Gender
• Interest in Language
• Phonemic Awareness
• Influences on Children’s Literacy Development
• Continuing Literacy Development
• Emergent Literacy
• Conventional Literacy
• Early Readers/Writers
• Transitional Readers/Writers
• Fluent Readers/Writers
• Understanding of Literacy Concepts
• Developing Cognitive Skills
• The Role of Early Childhood Educators, Parents, and Caregivers
• Guidelines for Setting Up a Balanced, Comprehensive Literacy Program From Birth to Primary Years
• Positive Practices to Foster Emergent Literacy
• Developing Concepts About Print
• Providing Direct and Vicarious Experiences
• Interactive Story Writing
• Reading Aloud to Students: The Importance of Print and Books
• Using Drama
• Emergent Literacy and Children With Special Needs
• Literacy-Enriched Play Intervention
• Print Referencing
• Dialogic Reading
• Strategies for English Learners
• Modeling Phrasing and Punctuation
• Using Contextual Definitions
• Elaborating on Children’s Responses
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 4 Phonemic Awareness: The Sounds of Our Language
• In the Classroom
• Introduction
• The Importance of Phonemic Awareness
• Teach
• The Components of Phonemic Awareness
• Developing Phonemic Awareness
• General Guidelines
• Early Literacy Screening, Tools, and Activities
• From Research to Practice
• Preschool Games and Rhyming Activities
• Phonemic Awareness and English Learners
• Articles for Teaching Phonemic Awareness to English Learners
• Phonemic Awareness and Students With Special Needs
• Phonemic Awareness Activities
• Picture Sorts
• Charades
• Comparing and Contrasting Sounds
• Beginning Sounds
• Middle Sounds
• Ending Sounds
• Recommendations for Teaching Phonemic Awareness
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 5 Phonics, Sight Vocabulary, and Fluency: Why and How
• In the Classroom
• Introduction
• Why Phonics Instruction?
• Phonics Skills Chart
• Word and Picture Activities
• Beginning Phonics Instruction
• Approaches to Sounding Out Words
• Sound Switch
• Roll Call Variation
• A Sequence for Teaching Phonics
• Teaching Sight Vocabulary Words
• Reading Games
• A Model Phonics Program
• Phonemic Awareness
• Useful Phonics Generalizations
• Whole–Part–Whole Instructional Sequence
• Coaching
• Minilessons
• Phonological Awareness, Phonics, and Sight Word Scope and Sequence Chart
• Application of Phonics Skills
• Use of Different Types of Literature
• Online Stories for Phonics
• Teachable Moments
• General Suggestions for Phonics Instruction
• Reading Fluency: Making Decoding Automatic Through Oral Reading
• Fluency Calculator
• Why Is Fluency Important?
• Rate
• Accuracy
• Prosody
• A Brief History of Fluency Instruction
• What Can Be Done to Improve Fluency?
• Interactive Reading With E-Books
• Teaching Fluency Through Poetry
• Strategies for English Learners
• Considerations for Students With Special Needs
• Scope and Sequence Instruction
• Direct Instruction
• Multisensory Teaching
• Technology, Phonics, and Special Needs
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 6 Spelling: A Writer’s Tool
• In the Classroom
• Learning and Applying Spelling Skills
• The Stages of Spelling Development
• Gentry’s Stages
• The Precommunicative Stage
• The Prephonetic, or Preliterate, Stage
• The Phonetic, or Letter-Name, Stage
• The Transitional, or Within-Word, Stage
• The Conventional Spelling, or Syllable Juncture, Stage
• Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, and Johnston’s Stages
• Emergent Spelling
• Letter-Name–Alphabetic Spelling
• Within-Word Pattern Spelling
• Syllables and Affixes Spelling
• Derivational Relations Spelling
• Observing Experimental Spelling
• Understanding Our Alphabetic System
• Supporting Spelling Development
• Early Phonetic/Early Letter-Name Stage
• Phonetic/Late Letter-Name and Within-Word Stage
• Transitional/Syllables and Affixes Spelling Stage
• A Possible Week’s Study Plan
• Monday: Pretest
• Tuesday: Word Sort
• Wednesday: Word Hunt
• Thursday: Using the Words in Context
• Before Finishing a Piece of Writing
• Friday: Paired Post-Tests
• Contract Spelling
• Strategies for English Learners
• Considerations for Students With Special Needs
• Reflecting on Spelling
• Word Lists and High-Frequency Words
• Portable Keyboards
• Practices to Avoid
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 7 Acquiring Word Meanings: The Building Blocks of Literacy
• In the Classroom
• Introduction
• Why Acquiring a Meaning Vocabulary Is Important
• Principles of Effective Vocabulary Development
• Motivating Students to Read Independently
• Five-Finger Strategy
• Listening to the Teacher Read
• Other Factors in Vocabulary Development
• Types of Vocabulary Instruction
• Explicit Instruction in Meaning Vocabulary
• Vocabulary Instruction
• Learning New Words for New Concepts
• Clarifying and Enriching the Meanings of Known Words
• Learning New Words for Known Concepts
• Moving Words Into Children’s Speaking Vocabularies
• Learning New Meanings for Known Words
• Strategies to Enhance Independent Meaning Vocabulary Growth
• Using the Context
• Using Word Structure, or Morphology
• Using the Dictionary
• Figuring Out Unknown Words
• Developing an Appreciation for Words
• Captioned Videos
• Vocabulary-Learning Games
• Strategies for English Learners
• Activate the Schema of the Learners
• Focus on Understanding
• Scaffold Vocabulary Usage
• Use Multisensory and Multimedia Approaches
• Provide Opportunities to Share Home Language
• Focus on the Functional Use of Language
• Vocabulary Development for Students With Special Needs
• Modifying Traditional Approaches
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 8 Reading Comprehension: Making Sense of Print
• In the Classroom
• What Is Comprehension?
• An Ideal Climate for Critical Thinking
• Knowledge
• Think Time
• Praise
• Reading Strategies for Comprehending
• Essential Strategies to Teach
• Previewing and Making Predictions
• Tuning in to Prior Knowledge
• Visualizing
• Making Connections
• Monitoring Understanding
• Generalizing
• Evaluating
• Asking and Answering Questions
• Teaching the Use of Comprehension Strategies
• Instructional Activities for Teaching Comprehension
• Directed Listening–Thinking Activity and Directed Reading–Thinking Activity
• Activity
• A Guided Reading Activity (see Chapter 11)
• Prereading
• During Reading
• Postreading
• Structured Listening Activity (Sla)
• Activity
• Prereading
• During Reading
• Postreading
• Dyad Reading
• Activity
• Postreading
• Story Prediction
• Activity
• Prereading
• During Reading
• Postreading
• Think-Aloud
• Activity
• Prereading
• During Reading
• Think-Aloud Mysteries
• Activity
• Reciprocal Teaching
• Activity
• The Knowledge Chart
• Activity
• Prereading
• Postreading
• Experience–Text Relationship
• Activity
• Prereading
• During Reading
• Postreading
• Question–Answer Relationships
• Activity
• Prereading
• During Reading
• During/Postreading
• Components of a Successful Comprehension Program
• Devote a Large Block of Time for Actual Text Reading
• Engage in Close Reading of Text
• Provide Opportunities for Reading in a Social Setting
• Give Students Access to Plenty of Children’s Literature
• Provide Students With Access to High-Quality Multicultural Literature
• Provide Opportunities for Personal Response to Text
• Consider the Language and Culture of All Learners
• Improving Comprehension for English Learners
• Reading Comprehension and Students With Special Needs
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 9 Writing-Reading Connections: Reciprocal Paths to Literacy
• In the Classroom
• Introduction
• Writing Goals for Early Readers
• Education Northwest
• Writing Workshop
• Open Format Workshop
• Genre Study Workshop
• The Writing Process
• Prewriting (Exploring the Topic)
• Drafting (Getting Ideas Down)
• Sharing (Pre-revising, Getting Feedback)
• Survey Monkey
• Revising
• Editing (Making Corrections)
• Publishing (Polishing for Presentation)
• Writing Structures
• Story Frames
• Literacy Scaffolds
• Prompts for Opinion Pieces
• Journal Writing
• Dialogue Journals
• Journal Writing
• Reading Response Journals
• Learning Logs
• Class Newspaper
• The Language Experience Approach
• Steps in the LEA
• Provide a Stimulus for Discussion and Writing
• Conduct an Oral Discussion About the Stimulus
• Brainstorm About the Stimulus
• Help Students Compose the Passage
• Read the Passage Aloud
• Recruit Students to Read Individual Sentences
• Have Students Name the Passage
• Conduct a Minilesson
• Duplicate the Passage
• Variations on the Basic LEA (Salinger, 1993)
• Online Experiences for Literacy and Learning
• Read-Along Stories and Songs
• Scholastic STACKS
• Launchpad
• Writing and Students Who Are English Learners
• Writing for Students With Special Needs
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 10 Informational Text in the Classroom: Reading and Writing to Learn
• In the Classroom
• Why Informational Text Is Important
• Why Informational Text Is Challenging
• Principles of Using Informational Text
• Use Text Features for Previewing
• Table of Contents
• Headings
• Glossaries
• Index
• Sidebar Text
• Photos With Captions
• Illustrations
• Graphs and Charts
• Preview and Review Questions
• Establish an Authentic Context and Purpose for Reading
• Use in Conjunction With Other Forms of Text
• Awesome Library
• U.S. Library of Congress
• Teaching Young Students to Read Informational Text
• Teacher Think-Alouds
• Background Research on Different Topics
• Explicit Instruction of Organizational Patterns
• Question and Answer
• Description/Enumeration
• Sequence or Chronology
• Cause and Effect
• Comparison/Contrast
• Minilessons
• Other Instructional Strategies for Informational Text
• Web-Based Digital Poster
• Writing Informational Text
• Structuring Informational Writing
• Instructional Strategies for Writing Informational Text
• Expository Text Frames
• Strategies for Choosing a Topic
• Scavenger Hunts
• Treasure Hunts for ESL Students
• Writing Workshop
• Strategies for English Learners and Reading and Writing Informational Text
• Informational Text and Students With Special Needs
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 11 Large- and Small-Group Reading Strategies: Creating a Literate Community
• In the Classroom
• Introduction
• Shared Reading
• Purposes for Shared Reading
• Developing Print Concepts
• Reinforcing Decoding Skills
• Exploring Language
• Thinking Creatively
• Improving Comprehension Skills
• Appreciating Reading
• Procedures for Shared Reading
• Guided Reading
• Purposes for Guided Reading
• The Role of Questioning in Guided Reading
• Before Reading
• During Reading
• After Reading
• Leveled Texts
• Procedures for Guided Reading
• New Text Orientation
• Oral/Silent Reading
• Retelling/Summarizing
• Grand Conversation and/or Explicit Phonics Instruction
• Follow-Up
• Classroom Management During Guided Reading
• Writing Center
• Listening Center
• Classroom Library
• Grouping for Instruction
• Leveled Groups
• Skill Groups
• Literature Circles
• Pairs (Buddy Reading)
• Peer-Editing Groups
• Cooperative Groups
• Other Practices for Group Reading
• Masking
• Music
• Integrate Music With Literature
• Multimedia Packages
• Pocket Charts
• Word Walls
• Cloze Activities
• Small-Group Reading and English Learners
• Large- and Small-Group Reading and Students With Special Needs
• Making Text Accessible for All Learners
• Selective Pairing
• Online Books
• Echo Reading
• Building Background
• Delaying Independent Reading
• Encouraging a Variety of Responses
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 12 Literacy and Technology in a Balanced Classroom: Exploring Today’s Resources
• In the Classroom
• Introduction
• Visual Literacy
• Viewing
• Visually Representing
• Information About Drawing and Graphics Software
• Creating Multimedia Projects
• Technology Applications for Literacy Learning
• Writing Electronically
• Brainstorming and Organizing Software
• SurveyMonkey
• Creating Multimodal/Hypermedia Projects
• Student-Created Websites
• Online Reading and Researching
• Evaluating Websites
• Teaching Website Navigation
• Finding Information Online
• Communicating and Collaborating in Online Communities
• Wikis
• Blogs
• Blog Setup Sites
• Interactive Reading: E-Books
• Technology in Reading and Writing Workshops
• Document Readers
• Choosing Technology Applications
• Reviews of Educational Software
• Technology and English Learners
• Technology Tips for English Learners
• Technology and Students With Special Needs
• Tools for Transcription
• Teacher Professional Development
• The Teaching Channel
• Read, Write, Think
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 13 Assessment of Early Literacy Development: Informing Instruction
• In the Classroom
• Introduction
• Why Assess?
• Principles of Assessment
• The Core of Assessment Is Daily Observation
• Students Are Actively Engaged in the Assessment Process
• Assessment Takes Many Different Forms
• Assessment Avoids Cultural Bias
• Types of Assessment
• Skills-Based Assessment
• Curriculum-Based Assessment
• Process-Oriented Assessment
• Formal Assessment Procedures
• Achievement Tests
• DIBELS
• Criterion-Referenced Tests
• Diagnostic Reading Tests
• Informal Assessment Procedures
• Informal Reading Inventory
• Running Record
• Anecdotal Notes
• Sight Words
• Cloze Tests
• Interest and Attitude Inventories
• Story Retelling
• Assessing Specific Components of Literacy
• Assessing Phonemic Awareness
• Assessing Phonics Skills
• Assessing Fluency
• Assessing Vocabulary and Writing
• Word Writing CAFÉ
• Observation/Anecdotal Notes
• Rubrics
• Web-Based Rubric Sites
• 6+1 Trait Rubric
• Common Core State Standards (CCSS)
• Writing Folders
• Response to Intervention: Blending Assessment and Intervention
• Compiling and Summarizing Assessment Information
• Portfolios
• Group Profiles
• Using Assessment to Inform Instruction
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 14 Home as Partner: The Shared Connection
• In the Classroom
• Introduction
• Research on Home Literacy
• Understanding Differences in Home Practices
• Helping Parents Who Cannot Read
• American Library Association
• Introduce Them to Dialogic Reading
• Create Make-Believe-Alouds
• Build on What the Parent Can Do: Talk
• Communicating With Parents
• Conferences
• Scheduling the Conference
• Conducting the Conference
• What Parents Should Know About Reading in the Early Grades
• Parent Workshops
• Other Communication With Parents
• Newsletters
• Progress Notes
• Reading Festivals
• Family Literacy Night
• Reading Aloud to and With Children
• How to “Raise a Reader”
• Other Suggestions for Parents
• Family Literacy Programs
• Family and Community Literacy Engagement
• Family Literacy Programs
• Family and Community Literacy Engagement
• Troubleshooting
• Flexible Scheduling
• Home Visits
• Home Visit Resources
• Common Language
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• 15 The Early Literacy Classroom: Orchestrating a Comprehensive Program
• In the Classroom
• Introduction
• A Classroom Climate Conducive to Literacy
• Practices to Avoid
• Print Saturation
• Demonstrations
• High Expectations
• Teacher Feedback
• Instructional Modifications and Differentiation
• Organizing the Classroom Environment
• Room Arrangement
• Literacy Materials
• Devising an Instructional Plan
• Summary
• Questions for Journal Writing and Discussion
• Suggestions for Projects and Field Activities
• APPENDICES
• Appendix A: Children’s Literature Resources
• Books for Developing Phonemic Awareness
• Predictable Books
• Easy-to-Read Books
• Wordless Books
• Alphabet Books
• Informational Books
• Books for Increasing Reading Comprehension
• Books for Developing Concepts and Vocabulary
• Multicultural Books
• Books to Inspire Writing
• Appendix B: Recommended Books for Teachers
• Appendix C: Websites for Early Literacy
• Appendix D: Commercial Assessment Instruments
• Criterion-Referenced Reading Tests
• Formal Reading Tests
• Formal Tests for Emergent Readers
• Informal Reading Inventories
• Phonemic Awareness Tests
• Appendix E: Informal Checklists and Assessment Devices
• How the Tools in This Appendix Are Organized
• Knowledge of Print
• Concepts About Print Assessment
• Interest Inventory
• An Early Reader’s View of the Reading Process
• Response to Literature Checklist
• Primary Reading Attitude Survey
• Primary Reading Attitude Survey Scoring Sheet
• Quick Phonemic Awareness Assessment Device
• Assessments for Phonological Awareness
• Knowledge of Sounds and Letters Checklist
• Phonics Mastery Survey
• Peer Editor’s Feedback for Writing
• Praise, Question, and Polish (PQP) Form
• Beginning Writer’s Checklist
• 6 + 1 Trait® Rubric: 5-Point Beginning Writer’s Rubric
• Fluency Questions for Student Self-Assessment
• Developmental Spelling Test (The “Monster’s Test”)
• Beginning Speller Checklist
• Running Record Form
• Website Credibility, Accuracy, Reasonableness, and Support (CARS) Checklist
• Evaluating Technology Applications
• Student Profile
• Vocabulary Growth Group Profile
• Kid Graph
• Appendix F: Rimes and Common Words Containing Them
• Appendix G: Fry’s List of “Instant Words”
• First 100 Words (Approx. 1st Grade)
• Second 100 Words (Approx. 2nd Grade)
• Third 100 Words (Approx. 3rd Grade)
• Appendix H: Phonics Terms and Orthography Chart
• Common Phonics Terms
• Glossary
• References
• Index