Efnisyfirlit

• Copyright
• Contents in Brief
• Contents
• Clinical Correlations
• Preface
• Contributors
• Acknowledgments
• Part I: Structure of Macromolecules
• Eukaryotic Cell Structure
• Key Concepts
• CELLS ARE THE BASIS OF LIVING ORGANISMS
• Classification of Living Cells
• THE ENVIRONMENT OF CELLS: WATER AND SOLUTES
• Hydrogen Bonds Form between Water Molecules
• Water Has Unique Solvent Properties
• Electrolytes: Dissociation of Molecules in Water
• Water Is a Weak Electrolyte
• pH, WEAK ACIDS, AND THEIR CONJUGATE BASES
• Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation Defines the Relationship between pH and Concentrations of Conjugate
• Buffering Is Important to Control pH
• EUKARYOTES: MAMMALIAN CELLS AND TISSUES
• Mammalian Cells
• Chemical Composition of Mammalian Cells
• FUNCTIONS OF SUBCELLULAR ORGANELLES AND MEMBRANE SYSTEMS IN EUKARYOTE CELLS
• Plasma Membrane Is Limiting Boundary of a Cell
• Nucleus Is Site of DNA and RNA Synthesis
• Endoplasmic Reticulum Has a Role in Protein Synthesis and Many Synthetic Pathways
• Golgi Apparatus Is Involved in Secretion of Proteins
• Mitochondria Supply Most of the Cellular Need for ATP
• Lysosomes Are Required for Intracellular Digestion
• Peroxisomes Have an Important Role in Lipid Metabolism
• Cytoskeleton Organizes the Intracellular Contents
• Cytosol Contains Soluble Cellular Components
• INTEGRATION AND CONTROL OF CELLULAR FUNCTIONS
• DNA and RNA: Composition and Structure
• Key Concepts
• NUCLEIC ACIDS AND BIOLOGICAL INFORMATION
• Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
• DNA Can Transform Cells
• Information Capacity of DNA Is Enormous
• STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS: NUCLEOBASES, NUCLEOSIDES, AND NUCLEOTIDES
• Physical Properties of Nucleosides and Nucleotides
• Structural Properties of Nucleosides and Nucleotides
• STRUCTURE OF DNA
• Polynucleotide Structure and Properties
• Double-Helical DNA
• Noncanonical DNA Structures
• HIGHER-ORDER STRUCTURE OF DNA
• Genomic DNA May Be Linear or Circular
• DNA Is Superhelical
• Topoisomerases
• Packaging of Prokaryotic DNA
• Organization of Eukaryotic Chromatin
• SEQUENCE AND FUNCTION OF DNA
• Restriction Endonucleases and Palindromes
• Most Prokaryotic DNA Codes for Specific Proteins
• Only a Small Percentage of Eukaryotic DNA Consists of Functional Genes
• Repeated Sequences
• STRUCTURE OF RNA
• RNA Is a Polymer of Ribonucleoside 5’-Monophosphates
• Secondary Structure of RNA Involves Intramolecular Base-Pairing
• RNA Molecules Have Tertiary Structures
• TYPES OF RNA
• Transfer RNA Has Two Roles: Activating Amino Acids and Recognizing Codons in mRNA
• Ribosomal RNA Is Part of the Protein Synthesis Apparatus
• Messenger RNAs Carry the Information for the Primary Structure of Proteins
• Mitochondria Contain Unique RNA Species
• RNA in Ribonucleoprotein Particles
• Catalytic RNA: Ribozymes
• RNAs Can Bind Other Molecules
• RNAs Control Translation
• Proteins I: Composition and Structure
• Key Concepts
• FUNCTIONAL ROLES OF PROTEINS IN HUMANS
• AMINO ACID COMPOSITION OF PROTEINS
• Common Amino Acids
• Amino Acids Are Joined into Peptides and Proteins
• CHARGE AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS
• Ionizable Groups of Amino Acids and Proteins Are Critical for Biological Function
• General Relationship between Charge Properties of Amino Acids and Proteins, and pH
• Amino Acids and Proteins Can Be Separated on the Basis of their Differences in pI
• Amino Acid Side Chains Have Polar and Apolar Properties
• Amino Acids Undergo a Variety of Chemical Reactions
• PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
• HIGHER LEVELS OF PROTEIN ORGANIZATION
• Secondary Structure
• Tertiary Structure
• Quaternary Structure
• Unstructured Proteins
• Protein Complexes, Networks, and Interactomes
• Bioinformatics Relates Structure and Function of Protein Gene Products
• Homologous Fold Structures Are Often Formed from Nonhomologous Amino Acid Sequences
• NONGLOBULAR STRUCTURED PROTEINS
• Collagen
• Elastin Is a Fibrous Protein with Allysine-Generated Cross-Links
• Keratin and Tropomyosin
• Plasma Lipoproteins Are Complexes of Lipids with Proteins
• Glycoproteins Contain Covalently Bound Carbohydrate
• FOLDING OF PROTEINS FROM RANDOMIZED TO UNIQUE STRUCTURES: PROTEIN STABILITY
• The Protein Folding Problem
• Chaperone Proteins Assist the Protein Folding Process
• Noncovalent Forces Lead to Protein Folding and Contribute to a Protein’s Stability
• Denaturation Leads to Loss of Native Structure
• DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE
• CHARACTERIZATION, PURIFICATION, AND DETERMINATION OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION
• Separation of Proteins on Basis of Charge
• Separation of Proteins Based on Molecular Mass or Size
• Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis in the Presence of a Detergent
• HPLC Techniques Separate Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins
• Affinity Chromatography
• General Approach to Protein Purification
• Proteomic Techniques Determine All the Proteins Expressed in a Cell or Tissue in a Single Assay
• Determination of Amino Acid Composition of a Protein
• X-Ray Diffraction Techniques Are Used to Determine the Three-Dimensional Structure of Proteins
• Spectroscopic Methods for Evaluating Protein Structure and Function
• Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
• Part II: Transmission of Information
• DNA Replication, Recombination, and Repair
• Key Concepts
• COMMON FEATURES OF REPLICATION, RECOMBINATION, AND REPAIR
• DNA REPLICATION: FUNDAMENTAL MECHANICS
• The Basics
• Chemistry of Chain Elongation
• DNA Polymerases
• Separating Parental Strands: The Replication Fork
• Solving the Polarity Problem: Semi-discontinuous DNA Synthesis
• Replication Fork Movement
• Choreography in Three Dimensions: The Replisome
• Termination of Replication in Circular Genomes
• Termination of Replication in Linear Genomes: Telomeres
• Epigenetics
• DNA REPLICATION: ENZYMES AND REGULATION
• Prokaryotic Enzymes of Replication
• Eukaryotic Enzymes of Replication
• Cell Cycle
• Replication of RNA Genomes
• RECOMBINATION
• Homologous Recombination
• Key Proteins of Recombination in E. Coli
• Nonhomologous Recombination
• Pseudogenes
• DNA DAMAGE AND MUTATIONS
• Mutations
• DNA REPAIR
• Excision Repair
• Direct Demethylation
• Photoreactivation
• Lesions Can Block Replication
• Double-Strand Break Repair
• Regulation of DNA Repair: The SOS Regulon
• RNA: Transcription and RNA Processing
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• MECHANISMS OF TRANSCRIPTION
• Initial Process of RNA Synthesis Is Transcription
• DNA Sequence Information Signals RNA Synthesis
• RNA Polymerase Catalyzes the Transcription Process
• Steps of Transcription in Prokaryotes
• TRANSCRIPTION IN EUKARYOTES
• Nature of Active Chromatin
• Transcription Activation Operates by Recruitment of RNA Polymerase
• Transcription by RNA Polymerase II
• Transcription by RNA Polymerase I
• Transcription by RNA Polymerase III
• The Common Enzymatic Basis for RNA Polymerase Action
• RNA PROCESSING
• Transfer RNA Is Modified by Cleavage, Addition, and Base Modification
• Ribosomal RNA Processing Releases Several RNAs from a Longer Precursor
• Messenger RNA Processing Ensures the Correct Coding Sequence
• RNA Polymerase II Recruits Processing Enzymes during Transcription in Eukaryotes
• Mutations in Splicing Signals Cause Human Diseases
• Alternate Pre-mRNA Splicing Can Lead to the Synthesis of Multiple Protein Isoforms from a Single DNA
• RNA EXPORT AND QUALITY CONTROL
• RNA INTERFERENCE
• TRANSCRIPTION-COUPLED DNA REPAIR
• NUCLEASES AND RNA TURNOVER
• Cytoplasmic Messenger RNA Turnover Is Coupled to Translation
• Protein Synthesis: Translation and Posttranslational Modifications
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• COMPONENTS OF THE TRANSLATIONAL APPARATUS
• Messenger RNA Transmits Information Encoded in DNA
• Transfer RNA Is a Bilingual Translator Molecule
• The Genetic Code Uses a Four-Letter Alphabet of Nucleotides
• Codon–Anticodon Interactions Permit Reading of mRNA
• Aminoacylation of Transfer RNA Activates Amino Acids for Protein Synthesis
• Ribosomes Are Machines for Protein Biosynthesis
• PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS
• Translation Is Directional and Colinear with mRNA
• Initiation of Protein Synthesis Is a Complex Process
• Elongation Is the Stepwise Formation of Peptide Bonds
• Termination of Polypeptide Synthesis Requires a Stop Codon
• Translation Has Significant Energy Cost
• Protein Synthesis in Mitochondria Differs Slightly
• Many Antibiotics and Toxins Target Protein Biosynthesis
• PROTEIN MATURATION: FOLDING, MODIFICATION, SECRETION, AND TARGETING
• Chaperones Aid in Protein Folding
• Proteins for Export Follow the Secretory Pathway
• Glycosylation of Proteins Occurs in the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus
• MEMBRANE AND ORGANELLE TARGETING
• Sorting of Proteins in the Secretory Pathway
• Import of Proteins by Mitochondria Is Complex
• Targeting Signals Direct Proteins to Specific Organelles
• FURTHER POSTTRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS
• Partial Proteolysis Releases Insulin and Activates Zymogens
• Amino Acids Can Be Modified after Incorporation into Proteins
• Collagen Biosynthesis Requires Many Posttranslational Modifications
• REGULATION OF TRANSLATION
• PROTEIN DEGRADATION AND TURNOVER
• ATP-Dependent Proteolysis Occurs in Proteasomes
• Intracellular Digestion of Some Proteins Occurs in Lysosomes
• Other Proteolytic Systems
• Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION
• Nested PCR
• Quantitative Real-Time PCR
• RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASE, RESTRICTION MAPS, AND DNA SEQUENCING
• Restriction Endonucleases Selectively Hydrolyze DNA
• Restriction Maps Permit Routine Preparation of Defined Segments of DNA
• Interrupted Enzymatic Cleavage Method: Sanger Procedure
• Dye-Terminator Sequencing
• RECOMBINANT DNA, CLONING, AND SELECTION OF CLONES
• DNA from Different Sources Can Be Ligated to Form a New DNA Species: Recombinant DNA
• Recombinant DNA Vectors Are Produced by Cloning
• Directional Cloning: DNA Inserted into Vector DNA in a Specific Direction
• Bacteria Transformed with Recombinant DNA and the Need for a Selection Process
• Recombinant DNA Molecules in a Gene Library
• Selection of Transformed Bacteria by Loss of Antibiotic Resistance
• α-Complementation for Selecting Bacteria Carrying Recombinant Plasmids
• PCR Circumvents the Need to Clone DNA
• DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF NUCLEIC ACIDS AND DNA-BINDING PROTEINS
• Nucleic Acids as Probes for Specific DNA or RNA Sequences
• Southern Blot Technique for Identifying DNA Fragments
• Single-Strand Conformation Polymorphism
• Detection of mRNA
• Detection of Sequence-Specific DNA-Binding Proteins
• COMPLEMENTARY DNA AND COMPLEMENTARY DNA LIBRARIES
• mRNA as Template for DNA Synthesis Using Reverse Transcriptase
• BACTERIOPHAGE, COSMID, AND YEAST CLONING VECTORS AND ANALYSIS OF LONG STRETCHES OF DNA
• Bacteriophage as Cloning Vectors
• Cloning DNA Fragments into Cosmid and Artificial Chromosome Vectors
• Subcloning Permits Definition of Large Segments of DNA
• Chromosome Walking Defines Gene Arrangement in Long Stretches of DNA
• EXPRESSION VECTORS AND FUSION PROTEINS
• Foreign Genes Expressed in Bacteria Allow Synthesis of Their Encoded Proteins
• Expression Vectors in Eukaryotic Cells
• SITE-DIRECTED MUTAGENESIS
• Role of DNA Flanking Regions Evaluated by Deletion and Insertion Mutations
• Site-Directed Mutagenesis of a Single Nucleotide
• APPLICATIONS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGIES
• Antisense Nucleic Acids in Research and Therapy
• Molecular Techniques Applied to the Whole Animal
• Recombinant DNA in Agriculture Has Commercial Impact
• GENOMICS, PROTEOMICS, AND MICROARRAY ANALYSIS
• Microarray Analysis
• Human Genome
• Regulation of Gene Expression
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• UNIT OF TRANSCRIPTION IN BACTERIA: THE OPERON
• LACTOSE OPERON OF E. COLI
• Repressor of Lactose Operon Is a Diffusible Protein
• Operator Sequence of Lactose Operon Is Contiguous with a Promoter and Three Structural Genes
• RNA Polymerase and a Regulator Protein Recognize Promoter Sequence of Lactose Operon
• Catabolite Activator Protein Binds Lactose Promoter
• TRYPTOPHAN OPERON OF E. COLI
• Tryptophan Operon Is Controlled by a Repressor Protein
• Attenuator Region of Tryptophan Operon
• Transcription Attenuation Controls Other Operons for Amino Acid Biosynthesis
• OTHER BACTERIAL OPERONS
• Synthesis of Ribosomal Proteins Is Regulated in a Coordinated Manner
• Stringent Response Controls Synthesis of rRNAs and tRNAs
• BACTERIAL TRANSPOSONS
• Transposons Are Mobile Segments of DNA
• Transposon Tn3 Contains Three Structural Genes
• GENE EXPRESSION IN EUKARYOTES
• Eukaryotic DNA Is Bound by Histones to Form Chromatin
• Methylation of DNA Correlates with Gene Inactivation
• PREINITIATION COMPLEX IN EUKARYOTES: TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS, RNA POLYMERASE II, AND DNA
• Eukaryotic Promoters and Other Sequences That Influence Transcription
• Modular Design of Eukaryotic Transcription Factors
• Common Motifs in Proteins That Bind DNA and Regulate Transcription
• REGULATION OF EUKARYOTIC GENE EXPRESSION
• Regulating the Regulators
• Activation of Transcription of the LDL Receptor Gene Illustrates Many Features Found in Eukaryotic G
• Epigenetic Control of Gene Expression
• Part III: Functions of Proteins
• Proteins II: Structure–Function Relationships in Protein Families
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• ANTIBODY MOLECULES: THE IMMUNOGLOBULIN SUPERFAMILY OF PROTEINS
• Antibody Molecules Contain Four Polypeptide Chains
• Immunoglobulins in a Class Contain Homologous CH Regions
• There Are Two Antigen-Binding Sites per Antibody Molecule
• Genetics of the Immunoglobulins
• Immunoglobulin Fold Is Found In a Large Family of Proteins with Different Functional Roles
• PROTEINS WITH A COMMON CATALYTIC MECHANISM: SERINE PROTEASES
• Proteolytic Enzymes Are Classified by Their Catalytic Mechanism
• Serine Proteases Are Synthesized as Zymogens and in Multiple Domain Proteins
• Tertiary Structures of the Catalytic Domains of Serine Proteases Are Similar
• Serine Proteases Have Similar Structure–Function Relationships
• Sequence Homology in Serine Proteases
• Mechanism of Serine Protease Catalysis
• Specific Protein Inhibitors of Serine Proteases
• HEMOGLOBIN AND MYOGLOBIN
• Human Hemoglobin Occurs in Several Forms
• Myoglobin: A Single Polypeptide with One O2-Binding Site
• The Heme Prosthetic Group Is Site of O2 Binding
• X-Ray Crystallography Has Defined the Structures of Hemoglobin and Myoglobin
• A Simple Equilibrium Defines O2 Binding to Myoglobin
• Binding of O2 to Hemoglobin Involves Cooperativity between Subunits
• Hemoglobin Facilitates Transport of CO2 and NO
• Decrease in pKa of Acid Groups with Change from T to R Conformation Releases Protons
• Hemoglobin Delivers Nitric Oxide (NO) to the Capillary Wall of Tissues Where It Promotes O2 Delivery
• THE BASAL LAMINA PROTEIN COMPLEX
• Protein Composition of the Basal Lamina
• The Molecular Structure of Basal Lamina Is Formed from Networks of Laminin and Type IV Collagen
• Focal Contact in Cell Membrane Interconnects Extracellular Matrix with Cytoskeleton
• Enzymes: Classification, Kinetics, and Control
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENZYMES
• Class 1: Oxidoreductases
• Class 2: Transferases
• Class 3: Hydrolases
• Class 4: Lyases
• Class 5: Isomerases
• Class 6: Ligases
• GENERAL CONCEPTS OF ENZYME MECHANISMS
• Thermodynamic Considerations
• Binding of Substrate by an Enzyme
• Transition State
• Covalent Binding of Substrate to Enzyme
• pH Alters a Reaction by Affecting General Acids and Bases
• ACTIVE SITE OF AN ENZYME
• Stereochemistry of Active Site
• Influence of Groups on the Substrate Distal to the Bond Being Modified
• COENZYMES, CO-SUBSTRATES, AND COFACTORS
• Coenzymes
• Adenosine Triphosphate May Be a Second Substrate or a Modulator of Activity
• Metal Ion Cofactors
• KINETICS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
• Rate of Product Formation
• Rate of Substrate Disappearance
• Reversible Reactions
• ENZYME KINETICS OF ONE-SUBSTRATE REACTIONS
• Michaelis–Menten Equation
• Significance of kcat in the Michaelis–Menten Equation
• Low Km versus High kcat
• Calculating the Constants
• Effect of Assay Conditions
• KINETICS OF TWO-SUBSTRATE REACTIONS
• Sequential Mechanism
• Ping-Pong Mechanism
• Kmapp
• INHIBITORS
• Competitive Inhibition
• Uncompetitive Inhibition
• Noncompetitive Inhibition
• Lineweaver–Burk Plots in the Presence of Inhibitors
• Other Inhibitors
• Enzyme Inhibitors as Drugs
• REGULATION OF ENZYME ACTIVITY
• Covalent Modification
• Allosteric Control of Enzyme Activity
• Multi-subunit Enzymes: Cooperativity
• Regulatory Subunits Modulate the Activity of Catalytic Subunits
• REGULATION OF METABOLIC PATHWAYS
• CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF ENZYMES
• Measurement of Plasma Enzymes
• Metabolomics and Proteomics
• The Cytochromes P450 and Nitric Oxide Synthases
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• CYTOCHROMES P450: PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION
• CY TOCHROME P450 ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
• NADPH-Cytochrome P450 Reductase Is the Obligatory Flavoprotein Electron Donor in the Endoplasmic Ret
• NADPH-Adrenodoxin Reductase is the Flavoprotein Electron Donor in Mitochondria
• CYTOCHROMES P450: NOMENCLATURE AND ISOFORMS
• CYTOCHROMES P450: SUBSTRATES AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS
• Cytochromes P450 Participate in the Synthesis of Steroid Hormones and Oxygenation of Endogenous Comp
• Cytochromes P450 Oxidize Exogenous Lipophilic Substrates
• CYTOCHROME P450: INDUCTION AND INHIBITION
• Drug–Drug Interactions
• Cytochrome P450 Genetic Polymorphisms
• Therapeutic Inhibition of Cytochrome P450
• NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASES: PROPERTIES AND ENZYMATIC FUNCTION
• NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE ISOFORMS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS
• NOSI
• NOSII
• NOSIII
• Biological Membranes: Structure, Receptors, and Solute Transport
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MEMBRANES
• Lipids Are Major Components of Membranes
• Glycerophospholipids Are the Most Abundant Lipids of Membranes
• Sphingolipids Are Present in Membranes
• Cholesterol Is an Important Component of Plasma Membranes
• Lipid Composition Varies between Membranes
• Membrane Proteins
• Membrane Carbohydrates Are Part of Glycoproteins or Glycolipids
• MICELLES, LIPID BILAYERS, AND LIPOSOMES
• Lipids Form Vesicular Structures
• General Properties of Lipid Bilayers
• STRUCTURE OF BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES
• Mosaic Model of Biological Membranes
• Lipids Are Asymmetrically Distributed in Membranes
• Integral Membrane Proteins
• Peripheral Membrane Proteins: Lipid Anchors
• Lipids and Proteins Diffuse in Membrane Leaflets
• Microdomains of Lipid–Protein Complexes Are Present in Membranes
• Dynamic Environment of Membranes
• MEMBRANE RECEPTORS
• TRANSLOCATION OF MOLECULES THROUGH MEMBRANES
• Some Molecules Diffuse through Cell Membranes
• Protein-Based Mechanisms for Translocation
• MEMBRANE CHANNELS AND PORES
• Structures of Membrane Channels
• Control and Selectivity of Membrane Channels
• Representative Membrane Channels and Pores
• MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS
• Energetics of Membrane Transport Systems
• Mammalian Membrane Transporters
• ELECTROCHEMICAL-POTENTIAL-DRIVEN TRANSPORTERS
• Representative Electrochemical-Potential-Driven Transporters
• PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORTERS
• Representative Primary Active Transporters
• PORE-FORMING TOXINS AND IONOPHORES
• Fundamentals of Signal Transduction
• Key Concepts
• SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION BETWEEN CELLS
• INTERCELLULAR SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
• Two Fundamental Modes of Intercellular Signal Transduction
• Secreted Signaling Molecules
• RECEPTORS FOR SECRETED MOLECULES
• INTRACELLULAR SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION BY CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS
• Ligands, Receptors, and Receptor–Ligand Interactions
• Relationships between Receptors, Effectors, and Second Messengers
• Protein Phosphorylation in Signal Transduction
• GTP-Binding Regulatory Proteins in Signal Transduction
• Other Components of Receptor-Mediated Signaling Complexes and Cascades
• Ligand–Receptor Interaction and Downstream Signaling Events
• Termination of Signal Transduction by Cell Surface Receptors
• LIGAND-GATED ION CHANNEL RECEPTORS
• Ion Channel Receptors
• Termination of Signaling by Ion Channel Receptors
• Other Ligands of Ion Channel Receptors
• ENZYME-LINKED RECEPTORS
• Physiological Roles and Extracellular Ligands
• Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTK)
• Receptor Serine/Threonine Kinases
• CYTOKINE RECEPTORS
• Cytokine Receptors: Structure and Function
• G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTORS
• Physiological Roles and Extracellular Ligands
• Structure of G Protein-Coupled Receptors
• Heterotrimeric G Proteins
• The G Protein Cycle
• CYCLIC AMP-BASED SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
• Regulation of Cyclic AMP Synthesis and Degradation
• Intracellular Signaling Mechanisms of Cyclic AMP
• CYCLIC GMP-BASED SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
• Regulation of Cyclic GMP Synthesis and Degradation
• Intracellular Signaling Mechanisms of Cyclic GMP
• CALCIUM-BASED SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
• Regulation of Cytosolic Ca2+ Concentration
• Calcium Activation of Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinases and Phosphatases
• PHOSPHOLIPID-BASED SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
• Regulated Phospholipid Metabolism as a Component of Intracellular Signaling Pathways
• Regulation of Phospholipase C and Phospholipase D
• Diacylglycerol and Protein Kinase C
• PIP3, Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases, and Protein Kinase B
• Phospholipase A2 and Generation of Arachidonic Acid Metabolites
• INTEGRATION OF SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS INTO SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION NETWORKS
• Part IV: Metabolic Pathways and Their Control
• Bioenergetics, Mitochondria, and Oxidative Metabolism
• Key Concepts
• ENERGY-PRODUCING AND ENERGY-UTILIZING SYSTEMS
• ATP Links Energy-Producing and Energy-Utilizing Systems
• NAD+ and NADPH in Catabolism and Anabolism
• THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONSHIPS AND ENERGY-RICH COMPONENTS
• Free Energy Is Energy Available for Useful Work
• Caloric Value of Dietary Components
• Compounds Are Classified on the Basis of Energy Released on Hydrolysis of Specific Groups
• Free-Energy Changes Can Be Determined from Coupled Enzyme Reactions
• High-Energy Bond Energies of Various Groups Can Be Transferred from One Compound to Another
• SOURCES AND FATES OF ACETYL COENZYME A
• Metabolic Sources and Fates of Pyruvate
• Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Is a Multienzyme Complex
• Acetyl CoA Is Used in Several Different Pathways
• THE TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE
• Reactions of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
• Conversion of the Acetyl Group of Acetyl CoA to CO2 and H2O Conserves Energy
• Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Is a Source of Biosynthetic Intermediates
• Anaplerotic Reactions Replenish Intermediates of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
• Activity of Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Is Carefully Regulated
• STRUCTURE AND COMPARTMENTATION BY MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANES
• Inner and Outer Mitochondrial Membranes Have Different Compositions and Functions
• ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
• Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
• Mitochondrial Electron Transport Is a Multi-component System
• Complex I: NADH–Ubiquinone Oxidoreductase
• Complex II: Succinate–Ubiquinone Oxidoreductase
• Complex III: Ubiquinol–Cytochrome c Oxidoreductase
• Complex IV: Cytochrome c Oxidase
• Electron Transport Chain Inhibitors
• OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
• Coupling of ATP Synthesis and Electron Transport
• ATP Synthase
• MITOCHONDRIAL INNER MEMBRANE CONTAINS SUBSTRATE TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
• Transport of Adenine Nucleotides and Phosphate
• Substrate Shuttles Transport Reducing Equivalents across the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane
• Acetyl Units Are Transported as Citrate
• Mitochondria Have a Specific Calcium Transporter
• Uncoupling Proteins
• MITOCHONDRIAL GENES AND DISEASES
• REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES (ROS)
• Production of Reactive Oxygen Species
• Damage Caused by Reactive Oxygen Species
• Cellular Defenses against Reactive Oxygen Species
• Carbohydrate Metabolism I: Major Metabolic Pathways and Their Control
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• GLYCOLYSIS
• Glycolysis Occurs in All Human Cells
• Glucose Is Metabolized Differently in Various Cells
• GLYCOLYSIS PATHWAY
• Glycolysis Occurs in Three Stages
• ATP Yield and Balanced Equation for Anaerobic Glycolysis
• NADH Generated by Glycolysis Has to Be Oxidized Back to NAD+: Role of Lactate Dehydrogenase and Subs
• Shuttles Are Important in Other Oxidoreduction Pathways
• Sulfhydryl Reagents and Fluoride Inhibit Glycolysis
• Hyperglycemia Inhibits Glycolysis
• Arsenate Prevents Net Synthesis of ATP without Inhibiting Glycolysis
• REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS
• Hexokinase and Glucokinase Have Different Properties
• 6-Phosphofructo-1-kinase Is a Regulatory Enzyme of Glycolysis
• Hormonal Control of 6-Phosphofructo-1-kinase by cAMP and Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate
• The Bifunctional Enzyme 6-Phosphofructo-2-kinase/Fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase Is Regulated by Phospho
• Heart Contains a Different Isoenzyme of 6-Phosphofructo-2-kinase/Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate
• Pyruvate Kinase Is Also a Regulatory Enzyme of Glycolysis
• GLUCONEOGENESIS
• Glucose Synthesis Is Required for Survival
• Glucose Synthesis from Lactate
• Glucose Is Synthesized from Most Amino Acids
• Glucose Can Be Synthesized from Fatty Acids with an Odd but Not an Even Number of Carbons
• Glucose Is Also Synthesized from Fructose
• Gluconeogenesis Requires Expenditure of ATP
• Gluconeogenesis Has Several Sites of Regulation
• Hormonal Control of Gluconeogenesis Is Critical for Homeostasis
• Alcohol Oxidation Inhibits Gluconeogenesis
• GLYCOGENOLYSIS AND GLYCOGENESIS
• Glycogen Is the Storage Form of Glucose
• Glycogen Phosphorylase Initiates Glycogenolysis
• Debranching Enzyme Is Required for Glycogenolysis
• Glycogenesis Requires Unique Enzymes
• Special Features of Glycogenolysis and Glycogenesis
• Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation Are Highly Regulated
• Effector Control of Glycogen Metabolism
• Phosphorylase a is a “Glucose Receptor” in Liver
• Hormonal and Neural Control of Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation
• Carbohydrate Metabolism II: Special Pathways and Glycoconjugates
• Key Concepts
• PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
• Pentose Phosphate Pathway Has Two Phases
• Glucose 6-Phosphate Oxidization Conserves Redox Equivalents as NADPH and Decarboxylation Supplies Pe
• Interconversions of Pentose Phosphates Lead to Intermediates of Glycolysis
• Glucose 6-Phosphate Can Be Completely Oxidized to CO2
• Pentose Phosphate Pathway Serves as a NADPH Regenerating System and Supplier of Pentose Phosphates
• SUGAR INTERCONVERSIONS AND NUCLEOTIDE-LINKED SUGAR FORMATION
• Isomerization and Phosphorylation Are Common Reactions for Interconverting Carbohydrates
• Nucleotide-Linked Sugars Are Intermediates in Many Sugar Transformations
• Epimerization Interconverts Nucleotide-Linked Glucose and Galactose
• Glucuronic Acid Is Formed by Oxidation of UDP-Glucose
• Decarboxylation, Oxidoreduction, and Transamidation of Sugars Yield Necessary Products
• Sialic Acids Are Derived from N-Acetylglucosamine
• BIOSYNTHESIS OF COMPLEX POLYSACCHARIDES
• GLYCOPROTEINS
• Glycoproteins Contain Variable Amounts of Carbohydrate
• Synthesis of N-Linked Glycoproteins Involves Dolichol Phosphate
• Glycan Function
• PROTEOGLYCANS
• There Are Six Classes of Proteoglycans
• Biosynthesis of Chondroitin Sulfate Is Typical of Glycosaminoglycan Formation
• Lipid Metabolism I: Synthesis, Storage, and Utilization of Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerols
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• CHEMICAL NATURE OF FATTY ACIDS AND ACYLGLYCEROLS
• Fatty Acids Are Alkyl Chains Terminating in a Carboxyl Group
• Most Fatty Acids in Humans Occur as Triacylglycerols
• The Hydrophobicity of Triacylglycerols Is Important for Their Functions
• INTERORGAN TRANSPORT OF FATTY ACIDS AND THEIR PRIMARY PRODUCTS
• Lipid Transport in the Fed State
• Lipid Transport in the Fasted State
• SYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS: LIPOGENESIS
• Glucose Is the Major Precursor for Fatty Acid Synthesis
• Pathway of Fatty Acid Biosynthesis
• The Citrate Cleavage Pathway Provides Acetyl CoA and NADPH for Lipogenesis in the Cytosol
• Modification of Fatty Acids
• Fatty Acid Synthase Can Produce Fatty Acids other than Palmitate
• Fatty Acyl CoAs May Be Reduced to Fatty Alcohols
• STORAGE OF FATTY ACIDS AS TRIACYLGLYCEROL
• Triacylglycerols Are Synthesized from Fatty Acyl CoAs and Glycerol 3-Phosphate
• Mobilization of Triacylglycerols Requires Hydrolysis
• Triacylglycerol Synthesis Occurs during Fasting as Part of a Triacylglycerol-Fatty Acid Cycle Involv
• UTILIZATION OF FATTY ACIDS FOR ENERGY PRODUCTION
• β-Oxidation of Straight-Chain Fatty Acids Is a Major Energy-Producing Process
• Energy Yield from the β-Oxidation of Fatty Acids
• Comparison of Fatty Acid Synthesis and Oxidation
• β-Oxidation of Some Fatty Acids Requires Additional Steps
• Ketone Bodies Are Formed from Acetyl CoA
• Utilization of Ketone Bodies by Nonhepatic Tissues Requires Formation of Acetoacetyl CoA
• Peroxisomal Oxidation of Fatty Acids Serves Many Functions
• REGULATION OF LIPID METABOLISM
• Regulation in the Fed State
• Regulation in the Fasted State
• Regulation of Fatty Acid Oxidation
• Fatty Acids as Regulatory Molecules
• Lipid Metabolism II: Pathways of Metabolism of Special Lipids
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• PHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Phospholipids Contain Phosphatidic Acid Linked to a Base
• Phospholipids in Membranes Serve a Variety of Roles
• Biosynthesis of Phospholipids
• Asymmetric Distribution of Fatty Acids in Phospholipids Is due to Remodeling Reactions
• Plasmalogens Are Synthesized from Fatty Alcohols
• CHOLESTEROL
• Cholesterol Is Widely Distributed in Free and Esterified Forms
• Cholesterol Is Synthesized from Acetyl CoA
• Plasma Lipoproteins
• Cholesterol Synthesis Is Regulated
• Cholesterol Is Excreted Primarily as Bile Acids
• SPHINGOLIPIDS
• Synthesis of Sphingosine
• Ceramides Are Fatty Acid Amide Derivatives of Sphingosine
• Sphingomyelin Is a Phosphorus-Containing Sphingolipid
• Glycosphingolipids Usually Contain Galactose or Glucose
• Sphingolipidoses Are Lysosomal Storage Diseases
• PROSTAGLANDINS AND THROMBOXANES
• Prostaglandins and Thromboxanes Are Derivatives of Monocarboxylic Acids
• Synthesis of Prostaglandins Involves a Cyclooxygenase
• Prostaglandins Exhibit Many Physiological Effects
• LIPOXYGENASE AND OXY-EICOSATETRAENOIC ACIDS
• Monohydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic Acids Are Products of Lipoxygenase Action
• Leukotrienes, Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic Acids, and Lipoxins Are Hormones Derived from HPETEs
• Leukotrienes and HETEs Affect Several Physiological Processes
• Amino Acid and Heme Metabolism
• Key Concepts
• INCORPORATION OF NITROGEN INTO AMINO ACIDS
• Most Amino Acids Are Obtained from the Diet
• Amino Groups Are Transferred from One Amino Acid to Form Another
• Pyridoxal Phosphate Is Cofactor for Aminotransferases
• Glutamate Dehydrogenase Incorporates and Produces Ammonia
• Free Ammonia Is Incorporated into and Produced from Glutamine
• Amino Acid Oxidases Remove Amino Groups
• TRANSPORT OF NITROGEN TO LIVER AND KIDNEY
• Protein Is Degraded Constantly
• Ammonia Is Released in Liver and Kidney
• UREA CYCLE
• Nitrogen Atoms of Urea Come from Ammonia and Aspartate
• Synthesis of Urea Requires Five Enzymes
• Urea Synthesis Is Regulated by an Allosteric Effector and by Enzyme Induction
• Metabolic Disorders of Urea Synthesis Have Serious Consequences
• BIOSYNTHESIS OF NONESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
• DEGRADATION OF AMINO ACIDS
• Nonessential Amino Acids
• Essential Amino Acids
• Branched-Chain Amino Acids
• IMPORTANT METABOLITES DERIVED FROM AMINO ACIDS
• Metabolites Made from More than One Amino Acid
• Glutathione
• HEME BIOSYNTHESIS
• Enzymes Involved in Heme Biosynthesis
• ALA Synthase Catalyzes Rate-Limiting Step of Heme Biosynthesis
• Porphyrias
• HEME CATABOLISM
• Bilirubin Is Conjugated to Form Bilirubin Diglucuronide in Liver
• Intravascular Hemolysis Requires Scavenging of Iron
• Purine and Pyrimidine Nucleotide Metabolism
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• METABOLIC FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES
• Distribution of Nucleotides Varies with Cell Type
• 5-PHOSPHORIBOSYL-1-PYROPHOSPHATE AND GLUTAMINE IN DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF NUCLEOTIDES
• SYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
• Formation of IMP
• Purine Nucleotide Synthesis Is Highly Regulated
• Purine Bases and Nucleosides Are Salvaged to Reform Nucleotides
• Purine Nucleotides Are Interconverted to Balance Cellular Levels of Adenine and Guanine Nucleotides
• GTP IS THE PRECURSOR OF TETRAHYDROBIOPTERIN
• URIC ACID IS THE END PRODUCT OF PURINE DEGRADATION IN HUMANS
• METABOLISM OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES
• Synthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotides
• Pyrimidine Nucleotide Synthesis Is Regulated at the Level of Carbamoyl Phosphate Synthetase II
• Pyrimidine Bases Are Salvaged to Reform Nucleotides
• DEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDE FORMATION
• Deoxyribonucleotides Are Formed by Reduction of Ribonucleoside 5’-Diphosphates
• Deoxythymidylate Synthesis Requires N 5, N 10-Methylene H4Folate
• Pyrimidine Interconversions: Deoxyribopyrimidine Nucleosides and Nucleotides
• DEGRADATION OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES
• NUCLEOSIDE AND NUCLEOTIDE KINASES
• NUCLEOTIDE METABOLIZING ENZYMES AS A FUNCTION OF THE CELL CYCLE
• NUCLEOTIDE COENZYME SYNTHESIS
• CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS THAT INTERFERE WITH PURINE AND PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDE METABOLISM
• Inhibitors of Purine and Pyrimidine Nucleotide Metabolism
• Biochemical Basis for Responses to Chemotherapeutic Agents
• Metabolic Interrelationships
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• STARVE-FEED CYCLE
• In the Well-Fed State the Diet Supplies the Energy Requirements
• In the Early Fasting State Hepatic Glycogenolysis Maintains Blood Glucose
• The Fasting State Requires Gluconeogenesis from Amino Acids and Glycerol
• In the Early Refed State Glycogen Is Formed by the Indirect Pathway
• Important Interorgan Metabolic Interactions
• Energy Requirements, Reserves, and Caloric Homeostasis
• The Five Phases of Glucose Homeostasis
• MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN SWITCHING LIVER METABOLISM BETWEEN THE WELL-FED AND STARVED STATES
• Substrate Availability Controls Many Metabolic Pathways
• Allosteric Effectors Regulate Key Enzymes
• Covalent Modification Regulates Key Enzymes
• Changes in the Amounts of Key Enzymes Provide Long-Term Adaptation
• INTERRELATIONSHIP OF TISSUES IN NUTRITIONAL AND HORMONAL STATES
• Obesity
• Dieting
• Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
• Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
• Cancer
• Aerobic and Anaerobic Exercise
• Pregnancy
• Lactation
• Stress and Injury
• Liver Disease
• Renal Disease
• Consumption of Alcohol
• Acid-Base Balance
• Colon
• Biochemistry of Hormones
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• HORMONES AND THE HORMONAL CASCADE SYSTEM
• Hormonal Cascade Systems Amplify Specific Signals
• Major Polypeptide Hormones and Their Actions
• SYNTHESIS OF POLYPEPTIDE AND AMINO-ACID-DERIVED HORMONES
• Polypeptide Hormones: Gene Coding
• Amino-Acid-Derived Hormones
• Inactivation and Degradation of Amino-Acid-Derived Hormones
• PROTEIN HORMONE SIGNALING
• Overview of Signaling
• Cyclic Hormonal Systems
• Ovarian Cycle Is Controlled by Pulsatile and Cyclic Secretion of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone
• MEMBRANE HORMONE RECEPTORS
• Some Hormone-Receptor Interactions Involve Multiple Hormone Subunits
• Internalization of Receptors
• INTRACELLULAR HORMONE CASCADES: PROTEIN KINASES
• Insulin Receptor: Transduction through Tyrosine Kinase
• Activity of Vasopressin: Protein Kinase A
• Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH): Protein Kinase C
• Activity of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF): Protein Kinase G
• STEROID HORMONES
• Structures and Functions of Steroid Hormones
• Biosynthesis of Steroid Hormones
• Metabolism of Steroid Hormones
• Regulation of Steroid Hormone Synthesis
• Vitamin D3
• Transport of Steroid Hormones: Plasma-Binding Proteins
• STEROID HORMONE RECEPTORS
• Steroid Hormones Bind Intracellular Receptor Proteins
• Orphan Receptors
• Down-regulation of Steroid Receptor by Ligand
• Nuclear Hormone Receptors, Coactivators, and Corepressors
• Nongenomic Steroid Effects
• Part V: Physiological Processes
• Molecular Cell Biology
• Key Concepts
• NERVOUS TISSUE: METABOLISM AND FUNCTION
• Essential Concepts
• ATP and Transmembrane Electrical Potential in Neurons
• Neuron–Neuron Interaction Occurs through Synapses
• Synthesis, Storage, and Release of Neurotransmitters
• Termination of Signals at Synaptic Junctions
• Neuropeptides Are Derived from Precursor Proteins
• THE EYE: METABOLISM AND VISION
• Cornea Derives ATP from Aerobic Metabolism
• Lens Consists Mostly of Water and Protein
• Retina Derives ATP from Anaerobic Glycolysis
• Visual Transduction Involves Photochemical, Biochemical, and Electrical Events
• Rods and Cones are Photoreceptor Cells
• Color Vision Originates in Cones
• MOLECULAR MOTORS AND ASSOCIATED PROTEINS
• Muscle Contraction
• Skeletal Muscle: Structural Organization of its Components
• Skeletal Muscle Contraction
• Cardiac Muscle: Structure and Contraction
• Smooth Muscle Contraction: Calcium Regulation
• Energy Reservoirs for Muscle Contraction
• Other Classes of Myosins and Molecular Motors
• MECHANISM OF BLOOD COAGULATION
• Biochemical Processes of Hemostasis
• Procoagulation Phase of Hemostasis (Phase 1)
• Some Properties of Proteins Involved in Clot Formation
• Anticoagulation Phase of Hemostasis (Phase 2)
• Fibrinolysis Phase of Hemostasis (Phase 3)
• Role of Gla Residues in Blood Coagulation Factors
• Cell Cycle, Programmed Cell Death and Cancer
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• CELL DIVISION CYCLE
• Regulation of Cell Cycle
• Growth Factor Signal Transduction Pathway
• APOPTOSIS: PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH
• Major Pathways of Apoptosis
• p53 Induction of Apoptosis
• MAPK Pathways Regulate Both Cell Death and Cell Survival
• CANCER
• Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes
• Properties of Cancer Cells
• Multiple Mutations Are Required to Form a Cancer
• Genetic and Biochemical Heterogeneity of Cancers
• Mutagens and Promoters Cause Cancers
• Biochemical Analysis of Individual Cancers
• Digestion and Absorption of Basic Nutritional Constituents
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• Nutrient Types
• Several Gastrointestinal Organs Contribute to Food Digestion
• GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Different Sites of Digestion
• Digestive Enzymes Are Secreted as Proenzymes
• Secretion Is Regulated by Many Secretagogues
• EPITHELIAL TRANSPORT
• Solute Transport May Be Transcellular or Paracellular
• NaCl Absorption Depends on Na+/K+-exchanging ATPase, Membrane Transporters, and Channels
• NaCl Secretion Depends on Na+/K+-exchanging ATPase, Membrane Transporters, and Channels
• Ion Concentration Gradients and Electrical Potentials Energize Transport of Nutrients
• Gastric Parietal Cells Secrete HCl
• DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS
• Peptidases Assure Efficient Protein Digestion
• Amino Acid and Di- and Tripeptide Transporters
• DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
• Disaccharides and Polysaccharides Require Hydrolysis
• Monosaccharide Transporters
• DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS
• Digestion of Lipids Requires Overcoming Their Limited Water Solubility
• Lipids Are Digested by Gastric and Pancreatic Lipases
• Bile Acid Micelles Solubilize Lipids during Digestion
• Most Absorbed Lipids Are Incorporated into Chylomicrons
• BILE ACID METABOLISM
• Bile Acid Chemistry and Synthesis
• Bile Acid Transport
• Vitamins and Minerals: Requirements and Function
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• ASSESSMENT OF MALNUTRITION
• DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES
• FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
• Vitamin A Is Derived from Plant Carotenoids
• Vitamin D Synthesis Requires Sunlight
• Vitamin E Is a Mixture of Tocopherols and Tocotrienols
• Vitamin K Is a Quinone Derivative
• WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
• ENERGY-RELEASING WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
• Thiamin Forms the Coenzyme Thiamin Pyrophosphate
• Riboflavin Forms the Coenzymes FAD and FMN
• Niacin Forms the Coenzymes NAD and NADP
• Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) Forms the Coenzyme Pyridoxal Phosphate
• Pantothenic Acid and Biotin Form Coenzymes Involved in Energy Metabolism
• α-Lipoic Acid Plays Multiple Roles in the Body
• HEMATOPOIETIC WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
• Folic Acid Functions as Tetrahydrofolate in One-Carbon Metabolism
• Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Contains Cobalt in a Tetrapyrrole Ring
• OTHER WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
• Ascorbic Acid Functions in Reduction and Hydroxylation Reactions
• Choline and Carnitine Perform Several Functions
• MACROMINERALS
• Calcium Has Many Physiological Roles
• Magnesium Is Required by Many Enzymes
• TRACE MINERALS
• Iron Deficiency Causes Anemia and Decreased Immunocompetence
• Iodine Is Incorporated Into Thyroid Hormones
• Zinc Is Required by Many Proteins
• Copper Is a Cofactor for Important Enzymes
• Chromium Is a Component of Chromodulin
• Selenium Is Found in Selenoproteins
• Manganese, Molybdenum, Fluoride, and Boron Are Essential Trace Elements
• THE AMERICAN DIET: FACT AND FALLACY
• ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIONAL STATUS IN CLINICAL PRACTICE
• NUTRIGENOMICS–THE FUTURE OF NUTRITION
• Macronutrients: Metabolic Effects and Health Implications
• Key Concepts
• INTRODUCTION
• ENERGY METABOLISM
• Energy Content of Food Is Measured Primarily in Kilocalories
• Energy Expenditure Is Influenced by Four Factors
• PROTEIN METABOLISM
• Dietary Protein Serves Many Roles Including Energy Production
• Nitrogen Balance Relates Intake to Excretion of Nitrogen
• Essential Amino Acids Must Be Present in the Diet
• Protein Sparing Is Related to Dietary Content of Carbohydrate and Fat
• Normal Adult Protein Requirements
• Protein Requirements Are Increased during Growth and Illness
• PROTEIN-ENERGY MALNUTRITION
• EXCESS PROTEIN-ENERGY INTAKE
• Obesity Has Dietary and Genetic Components
• Obesity, Insulin Resistance, Metabolic Syndrome, and Type 2 Diabetes
• Obesity Has Significant Health Implications
• CARBOHYDRATES
• FATS
• FIBER
• COMPOSITION OF MACRONUTRIENTS IN THE DIET
• Composition of the Diet Affects Serum Cholesterol
• Carbohydrates, Glycemic Index, and Glycemic Load
• Nutritional Protein Requirements Are Achieved by Mixing Vegetable and Animal Proteins
• Fiber from Varied Sources Is Desirable
• Dietary Recommendations
• NUTRIGENETICS AND DIET COMPOSITION
• Appendix: Review of Organic Chemistry
• Glossary
• Index
• Abbreviations in Biochemistry