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• Copyright
• Preface
• About the Authors
• Brief Contents
• Contents
• Part One: The Earth System: Our Place in SPACE
• Chapter 1: The Earth SYSTEM
• WHAT IS EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE?
• A New Science and a New Tool
• Earth Observation
• A Closer LOOK: Monitoring Earth from Space
• Systems
• The BASICS: Types of Systems
• Models
• Fluxes, Reservoirs, and Residence Times
• Living in a Closed System
• EARTH SYSTEM RESERVOIRS
• The Geosphere
• The Hydrosphere
• The Atmosphere
• The Biosphere
• The Anthroposphere
• DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS AMONG RESERVOIRS
• Feedbacks
• Cycles
• Important Earth Cycles
• HOW SCIENCE WORKS: HYPOTHESIS AND THEORY
• Formulating and Testing a Hypothesis
• Developing and Refining a Theory
• The Laws of Science
• The BASICS: The Scientific Method in Practice
• The Role of Uncertainty
• Chapter 2: Energy
• WHAT IS ENERGY?
• Fundamental Laws of Thermodynamics
• EXTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES
• The Sun
• The BASICS: Heat Transfer: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
• The BASICS: Electromagnetic Radiation
• Gravity and Tides
• INTERNAL ENERGY SOURCES
• The Distribution of Terrestrial Energy
• Sources of Terrestrial Energy
• EARTH’S ENERGY CYCLE
• Energy In
• Energy Out
• Pathways and Reservoirs
• ENERGY AND SOCIETY
• Energy Sources and the Energy Cycle
• A Closer LOOK: Making Use of the Sun’s Energy
• Chapter 3: Matter
• EARTH’S MATERIALS
• Common States of Everyday Matter
• The BASICS: Solids, Liquids, and Gases
• Atoms, Elements, Ions, and Isotopes
• Compounds and Mixtures
• ORGANIC MATTER
• Organic and Inorganic Compounds
• Important Organic Molecules
• COMPOSITION AND INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH
• Overall Composition and Internal Structure
• Abundant Elements
• MINERALS
• Mineral Compositions and Structures
• The Common Minerals
• Identifying Minerals
• A Closer LOOK: Steps To Follow in Identifying Minerals
• ROCKS
• The Three Families of Rocks
• Features of Rocks
• Basic Rock Identification
• REGOLITH
• The Surface Blanket
• Sediment
• Soil
• HOW MATTER MOVES THROUGH THE EARTH SYSTEM
• Chapter 4: Space and TIME
• THE SUN: AN ORDINARY STAR
• The Sun’s Vital Statistics
• The Life-Supporting Properties of the Sun
• Earth’s Warming Blanket
• The BASICS: Seasons on Earth
• THE SOLAR SYSTEM
• Tour of the Solar System
• Origin of the Solar System
• The Terrestrial Planets Today
• The Jovian Planets Today
• Other Solar System Objects
• OTHER SUNS AND PLANETARY SYSTEMS
• Classifying Stars
• Stellar Evolution
• Discovery of Other Planetary Systems
• A Closer LOOK: Extraterrestrial Life
• TIME AND CHANGE
• Origins
• Relative and Numerical Age
• The BASICS: Measuring Numerical Age
• Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism
• Part Two: The Geosphere: Earth Beneath Our Feet
• Chapter 5: The Tectonic CYCLE
• PLATE TECTONICS: A UNIFYING THEORY
• The Development of an Idea
• The Search for a Mechanism
• The BASICS: Earth’s Magnetism
• PLATE MOTION AND THE DRIVING FORCE
• Heat Flow in the Mantle: Review
• Convection as a Driving Force
• A Closer LOOK: Measuring the Absolute Speed of Plate Motion
• Measuring Plate Motion
• Recycling the Lithosphere
• PLATE INTERACTIONS AND EARTH’S LANDSCAPES
• Plate Margins
• Earth’s Topographic Features
• BUILDING THE CONTINENTS
• Regional Structures of Continents: Cratons and Orogens
• Stabilization of Continental Crust
• Supercontinents
• Isostasy, Gravity, and the Roots of Mountains
• Plate Tectonics and the Earth System Today
• Chapter 6: Earthquakes and Volcanoes
• EARTHQUAKES: WHEN ROCKS SHIFT
• What Is An Earthquake?
• Origin of Earthquakes
• Seismic Waves
• The BASICS: Types of Seismic Waves
• Determining Earthquake Locations
• Measuring Earthquake Magnitudes
• EARTHQUAKE HAZARD AND RISK
• Earthquake Disasters
• Earthquake Damage
• A Closer LOOK: The Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake and Tsunami
• Earthquake Prediction
• EARTHQUAKES AND EARTH’S INTERIOR
• Earth’s Internal Layering
• Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics
• VOLCANOES: WHEN ROCKS MELT
• Why Do Rocks Melt?
• The BASICS: The Characteristics of Magma and Lava
• Volcanic Eruptions
• Types of Volcanoes
• VOLCANIC DISASTERS
• Volcanic Hazards
• Predicting Volcanic Eruptions
• After an Eruption
• Volcanic Benefits
• MAGMA UNDERGROUND
• THE TECTONIC CONNECTION: ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF MAGMAS AND VOLCANOES
• Midocean Ridges, Hotspots, and Basaltic Magmas
• Continental Rifts and Rhyolitic Magmas
• Subduction Zones and Andesitic Magmas
• Now On to the Rock Cycle
• Chapter 7: The Rock CYCLE
• FROM ROCK TO REGOLITH
• Chemical Weathering
• Physical Weathering
• Sediment and Its Transport
• Mass Wasting
• Tectonic Environments of Sedimentation
• FROM REGOLITH TO ROCK
• Diagenesis and Lithification
• Sedimentary Rock
• A Closer LOOK: Banded Iron Formations
• Sedimentary Strata
• The BASICS: Using Strata to Measure Geologic Time
• NEW ROCK FROM OLD
• Metamorphism
• Metamorphic Processes
• Metamorphic Rock
• Metamorphic Facies and Plate Tectonics
• FROM ROCK TO MAGMA AND BACK AGAIN
• Melting and Magma: Review
• Crystallization and Igneous Rock
• THE ROCK CYCLE, THE TECTONIC CYCLE, AND EARTH’S LANDSCAPES
• Competing Geologic Forces
• The BASICS: Factors Controlling Landscape Development
• Landscape Equilibrium
• Part Three: The Hydrosphere: Earth’s Blanket of WATER and ICE
• Chapter 8: The Hydrologic CYCLE
• WATER AND THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
• Reservoirs in the Hydrologic Cycle
• Pathways in the Hydrologic Cycle
• The BASICS: Water, the Universal Solvent
• WATER ON THE GROUND
• The Stream as a Natural System
• Stream Channels and Streamflow
• A Stream’s Load
• Running Water and Landscapes
• Surface Water Reservoirs
• Floods: When There’s Too Much Water
• WATER UNDER THE GROUND
• Chemistry of Groundwater
• Movement of Groundwater
• Recharge and Discharge
• Aquifers, Wells, and Springs
• The BASICS: Porosity and Permeability
• Groundwater and Landscapes
• WATER AND SOCIETY
• Water Quantity
• Water Quality
• A Closer LOOK: The Case of the Aral Sea
• Chapter 9: The Cryosphere
• EARTH’S COVER OF SNOW AND ICE
• Snow
• GLACIERS
• How Glaciers Form
• Distribution of Glaciers
• The BASICS: Snow and Ice
• Warm and Cold Glaciers
• Why Glaciers Change
• How Glaciers Move
• GLACIATION
• Glaciated Landscapes
• The BASICS: Glacial and Interglacial Periods
• Periglacial Landscapes and Permafrost
• Glaciers and People
• Glaciers as Environmental Archives
• SEA ICE
• How Sea Ice Forms
• Sea-Ice Distribution and Zonation
• Sea-Ice Motion
• ICE IN THE EARTH SYSTEM
• Influence on Ocean Salinity and Circulation
• Influence on Atmospheric Circulation and Climate
• Ice Cover and Environmental Change
• A Closer LOOK: An Ice-Free Northwest Passage?
• Chapter 10: The World OCEAN
• OCEAN BASINS AND OCEAN WATER
• Ocean Geography
• Depth and Volume of the Ocean
• Age and Origin of the Ocean
• The Salty Sea
• Temperature and Heat Capacity of Ocean Water
• Vertical Stratification of the Ocean
• Biotic Zones
• Oceanic Sediment
• OCEAN CIRCULATION
• Factors That Drive Currents
• Factors That Influence Current Direction
• Ekman Transport
• The BASICS: The Coriolis Force
• Surface Current Systems
• From Surface to Depth and Back Again: Major Water Masses
• The Global Ocean Conveyor System
• OCEAN WAVES
• The BASICS: Wave Terminology
• Wave Motion and Wave Base
• Breaking Waves
• Wave Refraction and Longshore Currents
• Tsunami: A Different Type of Wave
• OCEAN TIDES
• Tide-Raising Force
• Tidal Bulges
• WHERE LAND AND OCEAN MEET
• Beaches and Other Coastal Deposits
• Marine Deltas
• Estuaries
• Reefs
• Coastal Erosion
• CHANGING SEA LEVELS
• Submergence and Emergence
• Sea Ice, Land Ice, and Sea Level
• A Closer LOOK: When the Mediterranean Dried Up
• The Ocean and Society
• Part Four: The Atmosphere: Earth’s Gaseous ENVELOPE
• Chapter 11: The Atmosphere
• THE HABITABLE PLANET
• Past Atmospheres of Earth
• Chemical Evolution of the Atmosphere
• COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF OUR ATMOSPHERE
• Composition
• A Closer LOOK: Aerosols in the Atmosphere
• Temperature
• Temperature Profile of the Atmosphere
• The BASICS: Sunlight and the Atmosphere
• Air Pressure
• MOISTURE IN THE ATMOSPHERE
• Relative Humidity
• The BASICS: Changes of State
• Adiabatic Lapse Rate
• Cloud Formation
• Cloud Types
• THE ATMOSPHERE IN THE EARTH SYSTEM
• The Atmosphere and the Life Zone
• Recent Atmospheric Changes
• Chapter 12: Wind and Weather SYSTEMS
• WHY AIR MOVES
• Wind Speed
• The BASICS: Windchill Factor
• Factors Affecting Wind Speed and Direction
• Geostrophic Winds
• Convergent and Divergent Flow
• GLOBAL AIR CIRCULATION
• The BASICS: Air Masses
• Hadley Cells and the ITCZ
• Ferrel Cells
• Polar Fronts and Jet Streams
• REGIONAL WIND AND WEATHER SYSTEMS
• Monsoons
• El Niño and the Southern Oscillation
• LOCAL WIND AND WEATHER SYSTEMS
• Coupled Local Wind Systems
• Katabatic and Chinook Winds
• SEVERE WEATHER
• Cyclones
• Thunderstorms and Tornadoes
• Drought and Dust Storms
• WEATHER AND THE EARTH SYSTEM
• Feedbacks
• Thresholds
• A Closer LOOK: The Butterfly Effect: Chaos Theory and Weather Forecasting
• Chapter 13: The Climate SYSTEM
• EARTH’S CLIMATE SYSTEM
• EVIDENCE OF CLIMATIC CHANGE
• Historical Records of Climate
• The BASICS: Köppen System of Climate Classification
• The Geologic Record of Climatic Change
• Climate Proxy Records
• A Closer LOOK: Using Isotopes to Measure Past Climates
• EARTH’S PAST CLIMATES
• Climate of the Last Millennium
• The Last Glaciation
• Pleistocene and Older Glacial Ages
• WHY CLIMATES CHANGE
• External Causes of Climatic Change
• Internal Causes of Climatic Change
• FEEDBACKS AND COMPLEXITY IN EARTH’S CLIMATE SYSTEM
• Feedbacks
• Feedbacks in Carbon Cycling
• Anthropogenic Causes of Climate Change
• Part Five: The Biosphere: LIFE on EARTH
• Chapter 14: Life, Death, and EVOLUTION
• WHAT IS LIFE? AN OVERVIEW OF BASIC BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
• The Necessities of Life
• The BASICS: DNA and RNA
• The Hierarchy of Life
• LIFE: A PLANETARY PERSPECTIVE
• The Ecosphere and the Life Zone
• The BASICS: The Linnean System of Taxonomic Classification
• Early Earth and the Origin of Life
• A Closer LOOK: Hypotheses on the Origin of Life
• EVOLUTION: THE HISTORY OF LIFE
• The Mechanisms of Evolution
• Early Life Forms
• Phanerozoic Life
• Environmental Change and Biodiversity
• EXTINCTION: THE HISTORY OF DEATH
• Background Rate of Extinction
• Mass Extinctions
• The Sixth Great Extinction
• Chapter 15: Ecosystems, Biomes, and Cycles of LIFE
• ENERGY AND MATTER IN ECOSYSTEMS
• Energy Flow in Systems
• The BASICS: Thermodynamics Revisited
• Material Cycling in Ecosystems
• Minimum Requirements of a Life-Supporting System
• GLOBAL CYCLES OF LIFE
• Basic Principals of Biogeochemical Cycling
• A Closer LOOK: The Human Body and Element Cycling
• Biogeochemical Links among the Spheres
• The BASICS: Soil Classification
• BIOMES: EARTH’S MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS
• Biogeography
• Terrestrial Biomes
• Aquatic Biomes
• Chapter 16: Populations, Communities, and CHANGE
• POPULATIONS
• Factors That Cause Changes in Populations
• Population Dynamics
• Limits to Growth
• The BASICS: Population Growth
• COMMUNITIES
• Interactions among Organisms
• A Closer LOOK: K-strategists and R-strategists
• Keystone Species
• Habitat and Niche
• Species Vulnerability
• BIODIVERSITY
• Defining and Measuring Biodiversity
• Threats to Biodiversity
• The BASICS: How Many Species?
• Conserving Habitat and Biodiversity
• Why Is Biodiversity Important?
• Part Six: The Anthroposphere: HUMANS and the EARTH SYSTEM
• Chapter 17: The Resource CYCLE
• RESOURCES FROM THE EARTH SYSTEM
• History of Human Resource Use
• Resources In, Wastes Out
• Basic Concepts in Resource Use and Management
• The BASICS: Types of Resources
• RENEWABLE RESOURCES: SEEKING BALANCE
• Forest Resources
• Fisheries Resources
• A Closer LOOK: The Tragedy of the Commons
• Soil Resources
• Water Resources
• LIMITS TO GROWTH
• Chapter 18: Mineral and ENERGY RESOURCES
• NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES: CLOSING THE CYCLE
• MINERAL RESOURCES
• Locating and Assessing Mineral Resources
• How Mineral Deposits Are Formed
• The BASICS: Deposits, Ores, and Reserves
• Mining
• ENERGY RESOURCES
• Energy from the Earth System
• Fossil Fuels
• The BASICS: Trapping Petroleum
• Alternatives to Fossil Fuels
• A Closer LOOK: Nuclear Power and Radwaste
• Energy and Society
• Chapter 19: The Changing Earth System
• UNDERSTANDING ANTHROPOGENIC CHANGE
• The BASICS: Human Population Growth
• A Closer LOOK: Malthus, Population, and Resource Scarcity
• Scientific Uncertainty
• HUMAN IMPACTS ON THE EARTH SYSTEM
• Geosphere: Impacts on Land
• Hydrosphere: Impacts on Water
• Atmosphere: Impacts on Air
• Biosphere: Impacts on Life and Ecosystems
• ANTHROPOGENIC ROLE IN GLOBAL CLIMATIC CHANGE
• Human Activities and the Carbon Cycle
• Assessing Climatic Change
• ANTHROPOSPHERE: HUMANS AND EARTH SYSTEM CHANGE
• Mitigation, Adaptation, and Intervention
• Our Past, Our Future
• To Our Readers
• Appendix A: Units and Their Conversions
• Appendix B: Tables of the Chemical Elements and Naturally Occurring Isotopes
• Appendix C: Tables of the Properties of Selected Common Minerals
• Glossary
• Credits
• Index