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• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Preface: The Aims of This Edition
• Introduction: Your Research and Your Audience
• I.1  What Is Research?
• I.2  Connecting with Your Audience
• I.3  Understanding Your Role
• I.4  Imagining the Role of Your Audience
• I.5  How to Use This Book
• ▶ Quick tip: A Checklist for Understanding Your Audience
• I  Asking Questions, Seeking Answers
• Prologue: Planning Your Project—An Overview
• ▶ Quick Tip: Sustaining a Research Project Alone and in Groups
• 1  From Topics to Questions
• 1.1  From an Interest to a Topic
• 1.2  From Focused Topic to Research Question
• 1.3  The Most Significant Question: So What?
• ▶ Quick Tip: Finding Topics
• 2  From Questions to a Problem
• 2.1  Understanding Research Problems
• 2.2  Distinguishing Between “Pure” and “Applied” Research
• 2.3  Connecting Research to Practical Consequences
• 2.4  Finding a Good Research Problem
• 2.5  Learning to Work with Problems
• ▶ Quick Tip: Making an Opportunity of Inexperience
• II  Sources and Resources
• Prologue: Sources and Authentic Research
• 3  Finding and Evaluating Sources
• 3.1  Understanding Three Types of Sources
• 3.2  Making the Most of the Library
• 3.3  Locating Sources Online
• 3.4  Evaluating Sources for Relevance and Reliability
• 3.5  Looking Beyond Predictable Sources
• 3.6  Using People to Further Your Research
• ▶ Quick Tip: Using Generative Artificial Intelligence
• 4  Engaging Sources
• 4.1  Recording Complete Bibliographic Information
• 4.2  Engaging Sources Actively
• 4.3  Reading for a Problem
• 4.4  Reading for Arguments
• 4.5  Reading for Data and Support
• 4.6  Taking Notes Systematically
• 4.7  Annotating Your Sources
• ▶ Quick Tip: Managing Moments of Uncertainty
• III  Making Your Argument
• Prologue: Assembling a Research Argument
• 5  Making Good Arguments: An Overview
• 5.1  Argument as Conversation
• 5.2  Assembling the Core of Your Argument
• 5.3  Explaining Your Reasoning with Warrants
• 5.4  Acknowledging and Responding to Anticipated Questions and Objections
• 5.5  Planning Your Research Argument
• 5.6  Creating Your Ethos
• ▶ Quick Tip: A Common Mistake—Falling Back on What You Know
• 6  Making Claims
• 6.1  Determining the Kind of Claim You Should Make
• 6.2  Evaluating Your Claim
• 6.3  Qualifying Claims to Enhance Your Credibility
• ▶ Quick Tip: Make Your Claim Contestable
• 7  Assembling Reasons and Evidence
• 7.1  Using Reasons to Plan Your Argument
• 7.2  Distinguishing Evidence from Reasons
• 7.3  Determining the Kind of Evidence You Need
• 7.4  Distinguishing Evidence from Reports of It
• 7.5  Evaluating Your Evidence
• ▶ Quick Tip: Assess Your Evidence as You Gather It
• 8  Warrants
• 8.1  Warrants in Everyday Reasoning
• 8.2  Warrants in Research Arguments
• 8.3  Testing Warrants
• 8.4  Knowing When to State a Warrant
• 8.5  Using Warrants to Test Your Argument
• 8.6  Challenging Others’ Warrants
• ▶ Quick Tip: Reasons, Evidence, and Warrants
• 9  Acknowledgments and Responses
• 9.1  Questions About Your Research Problem
• 9.2  Questions About the Soundness of Your Argument
• 9.3  Imagining Alternatives to Your Argument
• 9.4  Deciding What to Acknowledge
• 9.5  Framing Your Responses as Sub-Arguments
• 9.6  The Vocabulary of Acknowledgment and Response
• ▶ Quick Tip: Three Predictable Disagreements
• IV  Delivering Your Argument
• Prologue: Planning, Writing, and Thinking
• 10  Planning and Drafting
• 10.1  Why a Formal Paper?
• 10.2  Planning Your Paper
• 10.3  Avoiding Three Common but Flawed Patterns
• 10.4  Turning Your Plan into a Draft
• ▶ Quick Tip: Managing Anxiety as a Writer
• 11  Revising and Organizing
• 11.1  Thinking Like a Reader
• 11.2  Revising Your Frame
• 11.3  Revising Your Argument
• 11.4  Revising Your Organization
• 11.5  Checking Your Paragraphs
• 11.6  Letting Your Draft Cool, Then Revisiting It
• ▶ Quick Tip: Abstracts
• 12  Incorporating Sources
• 12.1  Summarizing, Paraphrasing, and Quoting
• 12.2  Creating a Fair Summary
• 12.3  Creating a Fair Paraphrase
• 12.4  Using Direct Quotations
• 12.5  Mixing Summary, Paraphrase, and Quotation
• 12.6  Showing Readers How Evidence Is Relevant
• 12.7  The Social Importance of Citing Sources
• 12.8  Four Common Citation Styles
• 12.9  Guarding Against Inadvertent Plagiarism
• ▶ Quick Tip: Indicating Citations in Your Paper
• 13  Communicating Evidence Visually
• 13.1  Choosing Visual or Verbal Representations
• 13.2  Choosing the Most Effective Graphic
• 13.3  Designing Tables, Charts, and Graphs
• 13.4  Specific Guidelines for Tables, Bar Charts, and Line Graphs
• 13.5  Representing Data Ethically
• ▶ Quick Tip: Look for Opportunities to Include Visual Evidence
• 14  Introductions and Conclusions
• 14.1  The Common Structure of Introductions
• 14.2  Step 1: Stating a Context
• 14.3  Step 2: Stating Your Problem
• 14.4  Step 3: Stating Your Response
• 14.5  Setting the Right Pace
• 14.6  Finding Your First Few Words
• 14.7  Writing Your Conclusion
• ▶ Quick Tip: Use Key Terms in Titles
• 15  Revising Style: Telling Your Story Clearly
• 15.1  Judging Style
• 15.2  The First Two Principles of Clear Writing
• 15.3  A Third Principle: Old Before New
• 15.4  Choosing Between the Active and Passive Voice
• 15.5  A Final Principle: Complexity Last
• 15.6  Editorial Polish
• ▶ Quick Tip: The Quickest Revision Strategy
• 16  Research Presentations
• 16.1  Presenting to Auditors
• 16.2  Giving a Preliminary Presentation
• 16.3  Giving a Final Presentation
• ▶ Quick Tip: Treat Your Presentation as a Performance
• V  Some Last Considerations
• 17  The Ethics of Research
• 17.1  Your Ethical Obligation to Yourself
• 17.2  Your Ethical Obligations to Your Audience and Fellow Researchers
• 17.3  Research and Social Responsibility
• 17.4  A Final Thought
• 18  Advice for Teachers
• 18.1  The Risks of Imposing Formal Rules
• 18.2  On Assignment Scenarios: Creating a Ground for Curiosity
• 18.3  Accepting the Inevitable Messiness of Learning
• Our Debts
• Appendix: A Brief Guide to Bibliographic and Other Resources
• Index