Efnisyfirlit

• Front Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Preface to Fourth Edition
• Preface to First Edition
• Chapter 1. Introduction
• 1.1 Introduction
• 1.2 History and Perspective
• 1.3 Organization of the Book
• Further Reading
• Chapter 2. Transformation of Snow to Ice
• 2.1 Introduction
• 2.2 Snow, Firn, and Ice
• 2.2.1 Density of Ice
• 2.3 Zones in a Glacier
• 2.3.1 Distribution of Zones
• 2.4 Variation of Density with Depth in Firn
• 2.5 Snow to Ice Transformation in a Dry-snow Zone
• 2.5.1 Processes
• 2.5.2 Models of Density Profiles in Dry Firn
• 2.5.3 Reduction of Gas Mobility
• 2.6 Hoar Layers
• 2.7 Transformation When Meltwater Is Present
• Further Reading
• Chapter 3. Grain-Scale Structures and Deformation of Ice
• 3.1 Introduction
• 3.2 Properties of a Single Ice Crystal
• 3.2.1 Structure
• 3.2.2 Deformation of a Single Crystal
• 3.3 Polycrystalline Ice: Grain-scale Forms and Processes
• 3.3.1 Orientation Fabrics: Brief Description
• 3.3.2 Impurities and Bubbles
• 3.3.3 Texture and Recrystallization
• 3.3.4 Formation of C-axis Orientation Fabrics
• 3.3.5 Mechanisms of Polycrystalline Deformation
• 3.4 Bulk Creep Properties of Polycrystalline Ice
• 3.4.1 Strain Rate and Incompressibility
• 3.4.2 Deviatoric Stress
• 3.4.3 Bench-top Experiments: The Three Phases of Creep
• 3.4.4 Isotropic Creep Behavior
• 3.4.5 Controls on Creep Parameter A
• 3.4.6 Recommended Isotropic Creep Relation and Values for A
• 3.4.7 Anisotropic Creep of Ice
• 3.5 Elastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Ice
• Appendix 3.1
• Appendix 3.2: Data for Figure 3.16
• Chapter 4. Mass Balance Processes: 1. Overview and Regimes
• 4.1 Introduction
• 4.1.1 Notes on Terminology
• 4.2 Surface Mass Balance
• 4.2.1 Surface Accumulation Processes
• 4.2.2 Surface Ablation Processes
• 4.2.3 Annual (Net) Balance and the Seasonal Cycle
• 4.2.4 Annual Glacier Balance and Average Specific Balances
• 4.2.5 Variation of Surface Balance with Altitude
• 4.2.6 Generalized Relation of Surface Balance to Temperature and Precipitation
• 4.2.7 Relation of Glacier-wide Balance to the Area-Altitude Distribution
• 4.3 Mass Balance Variations of Mountain Glaciers
• 4.3.1 Interannual Fluctuations of Balance
• 4.3.2 Cumulative Balance and Delayed Adjustments
• 4.3.3 Regional Variations of Mass Balance
• 4.4 Englacial Mass Balance
• 4.4.1 Internal Accumulation
• 4.4.2 Internal Ablation
• 4.5 Basal Mass Balance
• 4.5.1 Basal Accumulation
• 4.5.2 Basal Ablation
• 4.6 Mass Loss by Calving
• 4.6.1 The Calving Spectrum
• 4.6.2 Calving from Tidewater Glaciers
• 4.6.3 Calving from Ice Shelves
• 4.6.4 Calving Relations for Ice Sheet Models
• 4.7 Methods for Determining Glacier Mass Balance
• 4.8 Mass Balance Regimes of the Ice Sheets
• 4.8.1 Greenland Ice Sheet
• 4.8.2 Antarctic Ice Sheet
• Further Reading
• Chapter 5. Mass Balance Processes: 2. Surface Ablation and Energy Budget
• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.1.1 Radiation
• 5.1.2 Energy Budget of Earth’s Atmosphere and Surface
• 5.2 Statement of the Surface Energy Budget
• 5.2.1 Driving and Responding Factors in the Energy Budget
• 5.2.2 Melt and Warming Driven by Net Energy Flux
• 5.3 Components of the Net Energy Flux
• 5.3.1 Downward Shortwave Radiation
• 5.3.2 Reflected Shortwave Radiation
• 5.3.3 Longwave Radiation
• 5.3.4 Field Example, Net Radiation Budget
• 5.3.5 Subsurface Conduction and Radiation
• 5.3.6 Turbulent Fluxes
• 5.4 Relation of Ablation to Climate
• 5.4.1 Calculating Melt from Energy Budget Measurements
• 5.4.2 Simple Approaches to Modelling Melt
• 5.4.3 Increase of Ablation with Warming
• 5.4.4 Importance of the Frequency of Different Weather Conditions
• 5.4.5 Energy Budget Regimes
• Further Reading
• Chapter 6. Glacial Hydrology
• 6.1 Introduction
• 6.1.1 Permeability of Glacier Ice
• 6.1.2 Effective Pressure
• 6.2 Features of the Hydrologic System
• 6.2.1 Surface (Supraglacial) Hydrology
• 6.2.2 Englacial Hydrology
• 6.2.3 Subglacial Hydrology
• 6.2.4 Runoff from Glaciers
• 6.3 The Water System within Temperate Glaciers
• 6.3.1 Direction of Flow
• 6.3.2 Drainage in Conduits
• 6.3.3 Drainage in Linked Cavities
• 6.3.4 Subglacial Drainage on a Soft Bed
• 6.3.5 Summary of Water Systems at the Glacier Bed
• 6.3.6 System Behavior
• 6.4 Glacial Hydrological Phenomena
• 6.4.1 Jökulhlaups
• 6.4.2 Antarctic Subglacial Lakes
• Further Reading
• Chapter 7. Basal Slip
• 7.1 Introduction
• 7.1.1 Measurements of Basal Velocity
• 7.1.2 Local vs. Global Control of Basal Velocity
• 7.2 Hard Beds
• 7.2.1 Weertman’s Theory of Sliding
• 7.2.2 Observations at the Glacier Sole
• 7.2.3 Improvements to Weertman’s Analysis
• 7.2.4 Discussion of Assumptions
• 7.2.5 Comparison of Predictions with Observations
• 7.2.6 How Water Changes Sliding Velocity on Hard Beds
• 7.2.7 Sliding of Debris-laden Ice
• 7.2.8 Sliding at Sub-Freezing Temperatures
• 7.2.9 Hard-bed Sliding: Summary and Outlook
• 7.3 Deformable Beds
• 7.3.1 Key Observations
• 7.3.2 Till Properties and Processes
• 7.3.3 Constitutive Behaviors
• 7.3.4 Slip Rate ub on a Deformable Bed
• 7.3.5 Large-scale Behavior of Soft Beds
• 7.3.6 Continuity of Till
• 7.3.7 Additional Geological Information
• 7.4 Practical Relations for Basal Slip and Drag
• Further Reading
• Chapter 8. The Flow of Ice Masses
• 8.1 Introduction
• 8.1.1 Ice Flux
• 8.1.2 Balance Velocities
• 8.1.3 Actual Velocities
• 8.1.4 How Surface Velocities Are Measured
• 8.2 Driving and Resisting Stresses
• 8.2.1 Driving Stress and Basal Shear Stress
• 8.2.2 Additional Resisting Forces and the Force Balance
• 8.2.3 Factors Controlling Resistance and Flow
• 8.2.4 Effective Driving Force of a Vertical Cliff
• 8.3 Vertical Profiles of Flow
• 8.3.1 Parallel Flow
• 8.3.2 Observed Complications in Shear Profiles
• 8.4 Fundamental Properties of Extending and Compressing Flows
• 8.4.1 General Concepts
• 8.4.2 Uniform Extension or Compression
• 8.5 General Governing Relations
• 8.5.1 Local Stress-equilibrium Relations
• 8.5.2 General Solutions for Stress and Velocity
• 8.5.3 Vertically Integrated Force Balance
• 8.5.4 General Mass Conservation Relation (Equation of Continuity)
• 8.5.5 Vertically Integrated Continuity Equations
• 8.6 Effects of Valley Walls and Shear Margins
• 8.6.1 Transverse Velocity Profile Where Basal Resistance Is Small
• 8.6.2 Combined Effects of Side and Basal Resistances
• 8.7 Variations Along a Flow Line
• 8.7.1 Factors Controlling Longitudinal Strain Rate
• 8.7.2 Local-scale Variation: Longitudinal Stress-gradient Coupling
• 8.7.3 Large-Scale Variation
• 8.8 Flow at Tidewater Margins
• 8.8.1 Theory
• 8.8.2 Observations: Columbia Glacier
• 8.9 Ice Sheets: Flow Components
• 8.9.1 Flow at a Divide
• 8.9.2 Ice Streams
• 8.9.3 Ice Shelves
• 8.9.4 Transition Zone Between Grounded and Floating Ice
• 8.9.5 Flow Over Subglacial Lakes
• 8.10 Surface Profiles of Ice Sheets
• 8.10.1 Profile Equations
• 8.10.2 Other Factors Influencing Profiles
• 8.10.3 Relation Between Ice Area and Volume
• 8.10.4 Travel Times
• 8.10.5 Local-scale Relation of Surface and Bed Topography
• Further Reading
• Chapter 9. Temperatures in Ice Masses
• 9.1 Introduction
• 9.2 Thermal Parameters of Ice and Snow
• 9.3 Temperature of Surface Layers
• 9.4 Temperate Glaciers
• 9.4.1 Ice Temperature
• 9.4.2 Origin and Effect of Water
• 9.4.3 Distribution of Temperate Glaciers
• 9.5 Steady-state Temperature Distributions
• 9.5.1 Steady-state Vertical Temperature Profile
• 9.6 Measured Temperature Profiles
• 9.7 General Equation of Heat Transfer
• 9.7.1 Derivation of Equation
• 9.7.2 Boundary and Basal Conditions
• 9.8 Temperatures Along a Flow Line
• 9.8.1 Observations
• 9.9 Time-varying Temperatures
• 9.10 Temperatures in Ice Shelves
• Chapter 10. Large-Scale Structures
• 10.1 Introduction
• 10.2 Sedimentary Layers
• 10.3 Foliation
• 10.3.1 Elongate Bubble Forms
• 10.3.2 Finite Strain
• 10.4 Folds
• 10.4.1 Folding in Central Regions of Ice Sheets
• 10.5 Boudinage
• 10.6 Faults
• 10.7 Implications for Ice Core Stratigraphy
• 10.8 Ogives and Longitudinal Corrugations
• 10.9 Crevasses
• 10.9.1 Patterns and Conditions for Occurrence
• 10.9.2 Crevasse Depth and Propagation
• 10.9.3 Related Tensional Features
• 10.10 Structural Assemblages
• Further Reading
• Chapter 11. Reaction of Glaciers to Environmental Changes
• 11.1 Introduction
• 11.2 Reaction to Changes of Mass Balance: Scales
• 11.2.1 Net Change of Glacier Length
• 11.2.2 Simple Models for Response
• 11.2.3 Simple Models for Different Zones
• 11.3 Reaction to Changes of Mass Balance: Dynamics
• 11.3.1 Theoretical Framework
• 11.3.2 Ice Thickness Changes
• 11.3.3 Relative Importance of Diffusion and Kinematic Waves
• 11.3.4 Numerical Models of Glacier Variation
• 11.4 Reactions to Additional Forcings
• 11.4.1 Response of Glaciers to Ice and Bed Changes
• 11.4.2 Factors Influencing the Reaction of an Ice Sheet to the End of an Ice Age
• 11.4.3 Ice Flow Increased by Water Input
• 11.5 Changes at a Marine Margin
• 11.5.1 Conceptual Framework
• 11.5.2 The Tidewater Glacier Cycle
• 11.5.3 Interactions of Ice Shelves and Inland Ice
• 11.5.4 Forcing by Sea-level Rise
• Further Reading
• Chapter 12. Glacier Surges
• 12.1 Introduction
• 12.2 Characteristics of Surging Glaciers
• 12.2.1 Spatial Distribution and Relation to Geological Setting
• 12.2.2 Distribution in Time
• 12.2.3 Temperature Characteristics
• 12.2.4 Characteristics of Form and Velocity
• 12.3 Detailed Observations of Surges
• 12.3.1 Surges of Temperate Glaciers
• 12.3.2 The Role of Water: Variegated Glacier
• 12.3.3 Surges Where the Bed Is Partly Frozen
• 12.3.4 Surges of Polythermal Tidewater Glaciers
• 12.4 Surge Mechanisms
• 12.4.1 General Evidence Relevant to the Mechanism
• 12.4.2 The Mechanism for Temperate Glaciers
• 12.4.3 Polythermal Glaciers
• 12.5 Surging of Ice Sheets?
• 12.6 Ice Avalanches
• Chapter 13. Ice Sheets and the Earth System
• 13.1 Introduction
• 13.2 Interaction of Ice Sheets with the Earth System
• 13.2.1 Processes Driving Ice Sheet Change
• 13.2.2 Feedback Processes
• 13.3 Growth and Decay of Quaternary Ice Sheets
• 13.3.1 Relation to Milankovitch Forcings
• 13.3.2 Climate Forcings at the LGM
• 13.3.3 Onset of Quaternary Cycles
• 13.3.4 Heinrich Events
• 13.4 Ice Sheet Evolution Models
• 13.4.1 Model Components
• 13.4.2 Model Calibration
• 13.4.3 Simulations of Quaternary Ice Sheets
• Further Reading
• Chapter 14. Ice, Sea Level, and Contemporary Climate Change
• 14.1 Introduction
• 14.1.1 Equivalent Sea Level
• 14.1.2 Recent Climate and Sea-level Change
• 14.2 Global Warming and Mountain Glaciers
• 14.2.1 History of Glacier Lengths
• 14.2.2 Worldwide Mass Balance of Mountain Glaciers and Small Ice Caps
• 14.2.3 Sea-level Forecasts: Mountain Glaciers and Small Ice Caps
• 14.3 The Ice Sheets and Global Warming
• 14.3.1 Greenland
• 14.3.2 Antarctica
• 14.3.3 Model Forecasts of Ice Sheet Contributions to Sea-level Change
• 14.3.4 Simple Approaches to Forecasts for the Century Ahead
• 14.4 Summary
• 14.4.1 Recent Sea-level Rise
• 14.4.2 The Twentieth Century
• 14.4.3 This Century
• Chapter 15. Ice Core Studies
• 15.1 Introduction
• 15.1.1 Some Essential Terms and Concepts
• 15.1.2 Delta Notation
• 15.2 Relation Between Depth and Age
• 15.2.1 Theoretical Relations
• 15.2.2 Determination of Ages
• 15.2.3 Difference of Gas and Ice Ages
• 15.3 Fractionation of Gases in Polar Firn
• 15.4 Total Air Content
• 15.5 Stable Isotopes of Ice
• 15.5.1 Conceptual Model
• 15.5.2 Interpretation of Records
• 15.6 Additional Techniques of Temperature Reconstruction
• 15.6.1 Borehole Temperatures
• 15.6.2 Melt Layers
• 15.6.3 Thermal and Gravitational Fractionation of Gases
• 15.7 Estimation of Past Accumulation Rates
• 15.8 Greenhouse Gas Records
• 15.8.1 Histories of Atmospheric Concentration
• 15.8.2 Isotopic Compositions of Greenhouse Gases
• 15.9 Gas Indicators of Global Parameters
• 15.9.1 Global Mean Ocean Temperature
• 15.9.2 Global Biological Productivity
• 15.10 Particulate and Soluble Impurities
• 15.10.1 Electrical Conductivity Measurement (ECM)
• 15.10.2 Primary Aerosols
• 15.10.3 Secondary Aerosols
• 15.11 Examples of Multiparameter Records from Ice Sheets
• 15.11.1 Deglacial Climate Change
• 15.11.2 A Long Record of Climate Cycling
• 15.12 Low-latitude Ice Cores
• 15.13 Surface Exposures in Ablation Zones
• Further Reading
• Appendix A: A Primer on Stress and Strain
• Index
• Color Plates