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• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Preface
• Author
• 1. Introduction to the Scientific Methodology of Research
• 1.1 Introduction
• 1.2 The Scientific Approach versus the Layperson’s Approach to Knowledge
• 1.2.1 Sampling
• 1.2.2 Research Designs
• 1.2.3 Between-Groups Design
• 1.3 The Univariate Approach
• 1.3.1 The Multivariate Approach
• 1.4 Correlational Design
• 1.5 Hypothesis Testing and Probability Theory
• 1.5.1 Probability
• 1.5.2 Statistics and Scientific Research
• 1.6 Definition of Statistics
• 1.6.1 Descriptive Statistics
• 1.6.2 Inferential Statistics
• 2. Introduction to SPSS
• 2.1 Learning How to Use the SPSS Software Program
• 2.2 Introduction to SPSS
• 2.2.1 Setting Up a Data File
• 2.2.2 Preparing a Codebook
• 2.2.3 Data Set
• 2.2.4 Creating SPSS Data File
• 2.2.5 Data Entry
• 2.2.6 Saving and Editing Data File
• 2.3 SPSS Analysis: Windows Method versus Syntax Method
• 2.4 SPSS Analysis: Windows Method
• 2.5 SPSS Analysis: Syntax Method
• 2.5.1 SPSS Output
• 2.5.2 Results and Interpretation
• Section I: Descriptive Statistics
• 3. Basic Mathematical Concepts and Measurement
• 3.1 Basic Mathematical Concepts
• 3.1.1 Mathematical Notations
• 3.2 Measurement Scales (Levels of Measurement)
• 3.2.1 Nominal Scales
• 3.2.2 Ordinal Scales
• 3.2.3 Interval Scales
• 3.2.4 Ratio Scales
• 3.3 Types of Variables
• 3.3.1 IV and DV
• 3.3.2 Continuous and Discrete Variables
• 3.3.3 Real Limits of Continuous Variables
• 3.3.4 Rounding
• 4. Frequency Distributions
• 4.1 Ungrouped Frequency Distributions
• 4.1.1 SPSS: Data Entry Format
• 4.1.2 SPSS Windows Method
• 4.1.3 SPSS Syntax Method
• 4.1.4 SPSS Output
• 4.1.5 Results and Interpretation
• 4.2 Grouped Frequency Distributions
• 4.2.1 Grouping Scores into Class Intervals
• 4.2.2 Computing a Frequency Distribution of Grouped Scores
• 4.2.3 SPSS Method
• 4.2.4 SPSS Windows Method
• 4.2.5 SPSS Syntax Method
• 4.2.6 SPSS Output
• 4.3 Percentiles and Percentile Ranks
• 4.3.1 Percentiles
• 4.3.2 Computation of Percentiles (Finding the Score below which a Specified Percentage of Scores will Fall)
• 4.3.3 SPSS Syntax Method
• 4.3.4 Data Entry Format
• 4.3.5 SPSS Syntax Method
• 4.3.6 SPSS Output
• 4.3.7 Another Example
• 4.3.8 Data Entry Format
• 4.3.9 SPSS Syntax Method
• 4.3.10 SPSS Output
• 4.3.11 Percentile Rank
• 4.3.12 Computation of Percentile Ranks (Finding the Percentage of Scores that Fall below a Given Score)
• 4.3.13 Data Entry Format
• 4.3.14 SPSS Syntax Method
• 4.3.15 SPSS Output
• 4.3.16 Another Example
• 4.3.17 Data Entry Format
• 4.3.18 SPSS Syntax Method
• 4.3.19 SPSS Output
• 5. Graphing
• 5.1 Graphing Frequency Distributions
• 5.2 Bar Graph
• 5.2.1 An Example
• 5.2.2 Data Entry Format
• 5.2.3 SPSS Windows Method
• 5.2.4 SPSS Syntax Method
• 5.2.5 SPSS Bar Graph Output
• 5.3 Histogram
• 5.3.1 An Example
• 5.3.2 SPSS Windows Method
• 5.3.3 SPSS Syntax Method
• 5.3.4 SPSS Histogram Output
• 5.4 Frequency Polygon
• 5.4.1 An Example
• 5.4.2 SPSS Windows Method
• 5.4.3 SPSS Syntax Method
• 5.4.4 SPSS Frequency Polygon Output
• 5.5 Cumulative Percentage Curve
• 5.5.1 An Example
• 5.5.2 SPSS Windows Method
• 5.5.3 SPSS Syntax Method
• 5.5.4 SPSS Cumulative Percentage Output
• 6. Measures of Central Tendency
• 6.1 Why Is Central Tendency Important?
• 6.2 Measures of Central Tendency
• 6.3 The Arithmetic Mean
• 6.3.1 How to Calculate the Arithmetic Mean
• 6.3.2 SPSS Window Method
• 6.3.3 SPSS Syntax Method
• 6.3.4 SPSS Output
• 6.3.5 How to Calculate the Mean from a Grouped Frequency Distribution
• 6.3.6 An Example
• 6.3.7 Calculating the Mean from Grouped Frequency Distribution Using SPSS
• 6.3.8 Data Entry Format
• 6.3.9 SPSS Syntax Method
• 6.3.10 SPSS Output
• 6.3.11 The Overall Mean
• 6.3.12 An Example
• 6.3.13 How to Calculate the Overall Mean Using SPSS
• 6.3.14 Data Entry Format
• 6.3.15 SPSS Syntax Method
• 6.3.16 SPSS Output
• 6.3.17 Properties of the Mean
• 6.4 The Median
• 6.4.1 Calculating the Median for Ungrouped Scores
• 6.4.2 Calculating the Median for Grouped Scores
• 6.4.3 Properties of the Median
• 6.5 The Mode
• 6.5.1 SPSS Windows Method
• 6.5.2 SPSS Syntax Method
• 6.5.3 SPSS Histogram Output
• 6.5.4 The Mode for Grouped Scores
• 6.6 Comparison of the Mean, Median, and Mode
• 6.7 Measures of Central Tendency: Symmetry and Skewness
• 7. Measures of Variability/Dispersion
• 7.1 What Is Variability?
• 7.2 Range
• 7.3 Standard Deviation
• 7.3.1 Calculating the Standard Deviation Using the Deviation Scores Method
• 7.3.2 Calculating the Standard Deviation Using the Raw Scores Method
• 7.4 Variance
• 7.5 Using SPSS to Calculate the Range, the Standard Deviation, and the Variance
• 7.5.1 SPSS Windows Method
• 7.5.2 SPSS Syntax Method
• 7.5.3 SPSS Output
• 8. The Normal Distribution and Standard Scores
• 8.1 The Normal Distribution
• 8.2 Areas Contained under the Standard Normal Distribution
• 8.3 Standard Scores (z Scores) and the Normal Curve
• 8.3.1 Calculating the Percentile Rank with z Scores
• 8.3.2 SPSS Windows Method
• 8.3.3 SPSS Syntax Method
• 8.3.4 SPSS Data File Containing the First 10 Computed z Scores
• 8.3.5 Calculating the Percentage of Scores that Fall between Two Known Scores
• 8.3.6 Calculating the Percentile Point with z Scores
• 8.3.7 SPSS Windows Method
• 8.3.8 SPSS Syntax Method
• 8.3.9 Table Showing the 90th Percentile for the Set of 50 Exam Scores
• 8.3.10 Calculating the Scores that Bound a Specified Area of the Distribution
• 8.3.11 SPSS Windows Method
• 8.3.12 SPSS Syntax Method
• 8.3.13 Table from either Window or Syntax Methods for Displaying Lower and Upper Bound Scores Binding the Middle 70% of the EX11.SAV data set
• 8.3.14 Using z Scores to Compare Performance between Different Distributions
• 9. Correlation
• 9.1 The Concept of Correlation
• 9.2 Linear and Nonlinear Relationships
• 9.3 Characteristics of Correlation
• 9.3.1 Magnitude (Strength) of Relationships
• 9.3.2 Direction of Relationships
• 9.4 Correlation Coefficient and z Scores
• 9.4.1 Scatter Plot (SPSS Windows Method)
• 9.4.2 Scatter Plot (SPSS Syntax Method)
• 9.4.3 Scatter Plot
• 9.4.4 Converting Raw Scores into z Scores (SPSS Windows Method)
• 9.4.5 Converting Raw Scores into z Scores (SPSS Syntax Method)
• 9.4.6 SPSS Data File Containing the 6 Pairs of Computed z Scores
• 9.5 Pearson r and the Linear Correlation Coefficient
• 9.5.1 Example of the Pearson r Calculation
• 9.5.2 SPSS Windows Method
• 9.5.3 SPSS Syntax Method
• 9.5.4 The Calculated Pearson r
• 9.6 Some Issues with Correlation
• 9.6.1 Can Correlation Show Causality?
• 9.6.2 Spurious Correlation
• 10. Linear Regression
• 10.1 What Is Linear Regression?
• 10.2 Linear Regression and Imperfect Relationships
• 10.2.1 Scatter Plot and the Line of Best Fit
• 10.2.2 SPSS Windows Method (Scatter Plot and Line of Best Fit)
• 10.2.3 SPSS Syntax Method (Scatter Plot)
• 10.2.4 Scatter Plot with Line of Best Fit
• 10.2.5 Least-Squares Regression (Line of Best Fit): Predicting Y from X
• 10.2.6 How to Construct the Least-Squares Regression Line: Predicting Y from X
• 10.2.7 SPSS Windows Method (Constructing the Least-Squares Regression Line Equation)
• 10.2.8 SPSS Syntax Method (Constructing the Least-Squares Regression Line Equation)
• 10.2.9 SPSS Output
• 10.2.10 Results and Interpretation
• Section II: Inferential Statistics
• 11. Statistical Inference and Probability
• 11.1 Introduction to Inferential Statistics
• 11.2 Probability
• 11.2.1 The Classical Approach to Probability
• 11.2.2 The Empirical Approach to Probability
• 11.2.3 Expressing Probability Values
• 11.2.4 Computing Probability: The Addition Rule and the Multiplication Rule
• 11.2.5 The Addition Rule
• 11.2.6 The Multiplication Rule
• 11.2.7 Using the Multiplication and Addition Rules Together
• 11.2.8 Computing Probability for Continuous Variables
• 11.3 Sampling
• 11.3.1 Simple Random Sampling
• 11.3.2 Stratified Proportionate Random Sampling
• 11.3.3 Cluster Sampling
• 11.3.4 Nonrandom Sampling Techniques: Systematic Sampling; Quota Sampling
• 11.3.5 Sampling with or without Replacement
• 11.4 Confidence Interval and Confidence Level
• 11.4.1 How to Calculate the Confidence Interval
• 11.4.2 SPSS Windows Method
• 11.4.3 SPSS Syntax Method
• 11.4.4 SPSS Output
• 12. Introduction to Hypothesis Testing
• 12.1 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing
• 12.2 Types of Hypotheses
• 12.2.1 Research/Alternative Hypothesis
• 12.2.2 Null Hypothesis
• 12.2.3 Hypotheses: Nondirectional or Directional
• 12.3 Testing Hypotheses
• 12.3.1 Level of Significance
• 12.3.2 Two-Tailed and One-Tailed Test of Significance
• 12.3.3 Type I and Type II Errors
• 13. Hypothesis Testing: t test for Independent and Correlated Groups
• 13.1 Introduction to the t test
• 13.2 Independent t test
• 13.2.1 SPSS Windows Method: Independent t test
• 13.2.2 SPSS Syntax Method
• 13.2.3 SPSS Output
• 13.2.4 Results and Interpretation
• 13.3 Dependent/Correlated t test
• 13.3.1 SPSS Windows Method: Dependent t test
• 13.3.2 SPSS Syntax Method
• 13.3.3 SPSS Output
• 13.3.4 Results and Interpretation
• 14. Hypothesis Testing: One-Way Analysis of Variance
• 14.1 One-Way Analysis of Variance
• 14.1.1 An Example
• 14.1.2 Scheffé Post Hoc Test
• 14.1.3 SPSS Windows Method: One-Way ANOVA
• 14.1.4 SPSS Syntax Method
• 14.1.5 SPSS Output
• 14.1.6 Results and Interpretation
• 14.1.7 Post Hoc Comparisons
• 15. Hypothesis Testing: Chi-Square Test
• 15.1 Nonparametric Tests
• 15.2 Chi-Square (χ2) Test
• 15.2.1 Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test
• 15.2.2 SPSS Windows Method
• 15.2.3 SPSS Syntax Method
• 15.2.4 SPSS Output
• 15.2.5 Results and Interpretation
• 15.3 Chi-Square (χ2) Test of Independence between Two Variables
• 15.3.1 SPSS Windows Method
• 15.3.2 SPSS Syntax Method
• 15.3.3 SPSS Output
• 15.3.4 Results and Interpretation
• Appendix
• Bibliography
• Index