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• Book and Media Walkthrough
• Forecasting student success
• Real world applications
• The latest science
• Principles & tools of meteorology
• Structured learning
• Before-Class Learning
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Brief Contents
• Contents
• Preface
• Digital Resources for Instructors
• About the Authors
• Part 1: Energy and Mass
• Chapter 1: Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere
• 1–1 Focus on Aviation: Winter Storms and Air Travel
• The Atmosphere, Weather, and Climate
• The Scientific Method and Atmospheric Science
• Applying the Scientific Method
• Variations on the Scientific Method
• The Nature of Hypotheses and Scientific Theories
• Thickness of the Atmosphere
• Factors Affecting the Composition and Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere
• Gas Exchange, Equilibrium Conditions, and Residence Times
• The Homosphere and Heterosphere
• Composition of the Atmosphere
• The Permanent Gases
• Variable Gases
• 1–2 Physical Principles: Photosynthesis, Respiration, and the Global Carbon Cycle
• Atmospheric Density and Pressure
• Density
• 1–3 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Depletion of the Ozone Layer
• Pressure
• Layers of the Atmosphere
• Layering Based on Temperature Profiles
• 1–4 Physical Principles: The Three Temperature Scales
• A Layer Based on Electrical Properties: The Ionosphere
• Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere
• Evolution of the Atmosphere
• Some Weather Basics
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Atmospheric Pressure and Wind
• Mapping Air Pressure
• Station Models
• A Brief History of Meteorology
• Early Atmospheric Scientists
• Nineteenth-Century Progress
• The Development of Modern Weather Forecasting
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Chapter 2: Solar Radiation and the Seasons
• Energy
• Kinds of Energy
• Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Characteristics of Radiation
• Radiation Quantity and Quality
• Intensity and Wavelengths of Emitted Radiation
• 2–1 Physical Principles: The Nature of Radiation, Absorption, and Emission
• The Solar Constant
• 2–2 Physical Principles: The Sun
• The Causes of Earth’s Seasons
• Earth’s Revolution and Rotation
• Solstices and Equinoxes
• Effects of Earth’s Changing Orientation
• Period of Daylight
• Solar Angle
• Overall Effects of Period of Daylight, Solar Angle, and Beam Depletion
• Changes in Energy Receipt with Latitude
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Chapter 3: Energy Balance and Temperature
• Atmospheric Influences on Insolation
• Absorption
• Reflection and Scattering
• Transmission
• Spatial Distribution of Solar Radiation
• The Fate of Solar Radiation
• Atmospheric Absorption
• Atmospheric Backscattering
• Absorption and Reflection at the Surface
• Energy Transfer Processes
• Surface–Atmosphere Radiation Exchange
• 3–1 Physical Principles: Selective Absorption by Water Vapor and Carbon Dioxide
• Conduction
• Convection
• Sensible Heat
• Latent Heat
• Net Radiation and Global Temperature
• Latitudinal Variations
• The Greenhouse Effect
• 3–2 Physical Principles: Earth’s Equilibrium Temperature
• Global Temperature Distributions
• Influences on Temperature
• Latitude
• Altitude and Elevation
• Atmospheric Circulation Patterns
• Contrasts Between Land and Water
• Warm and Cold Ocean Currents
• Local Conditions
• Daily and Annual Temperature Patterns
• Daytime Heating and Nighttime Cooling
• Effects of Cloud Cover and Wind
• Annual Cycle
• Measurement of Temperature
• Instrument Shelters
• Temperature Means and Ranges
• Global Extremes
• 3–3 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Recent Severe Heat Waves
• Some Useful Temperature Indices
• Wind Chill Temperatures
• Heating and Cooling Degree-Days
• Growing Degree-Days
• Thermodynamic Diagrams and Vertical Temperature Profiles
• Our Warming Planet
• Recent Observed Changes in Temperature
• Changes in the Occurrences of Extreme Heat and Cold
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Chapter 4: Atmospheric Pressure and Wind
• The Concept of Pressure
• 4–1 Physical Principles: Velocity, Acceleration, Force, and Pressure
• Vertical and Horizontal Changes in Pressure
• The Equation of State
• 4–2 Physical Principles: Variations in Density
• Measuring Pressure
• Mercury Barometers
• Aneroid Barometers
• The Distribution of Pressure
• Pressure Gradients
• 4–3 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Owens Lake Dust Storms
• Hydrostatic Equilibrium
• 4–4 Physical Principles: The Hydrostatic Equation
• Horizontal Pressure Gradients in the Upper Atmosphere
• Forces Affecting the Speed and Direction of the Wind
• The Coriolis Force
• Friction
• Winds Aloft and Near the Surface
• Winds in the Upper Atmosphere
• 4–5 Physical Principles: The Coriolis Force
• Gradient Flow
• Near-Surface Winds
• Anticyclones, Cyclones, Troughs, and Ridges
• Anticyclones
• Cyclones
• Troughs and Ridges
• Measuring Wind
• 4–6 Focus on Aviation: Using Altimeters to Monitor Altitude
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Part 2: Water in the Atmosphere
• Chapter 5: Atmospheric Moisture
• The Hydrologic Cycle
• Water Vapor and Liquid Water
• Evaporation and Condensation
• Indices of Water Vapor Content
• Vapor Pressure
• Absolute Humidity
• Specific Humidity
• Mixing Ratio
• Relative Humidity
• Dew Point
• Measuring Humidity
• 5–1 Forecasting: Dew Point and Nighttime Minimum Temperatures
• 5–2 Forecasting: Water Vapor Satellite Imagery
• Distribution of Water Vapor
• 5–3 Forecasting: Vertical Profiles of Moisture
• Processes That Cause Saturation
• Factors Affecting Saturation and Condensation
• Effect of Curvature
• The Role of Condensation Nuclei
• 5–4 Focus on Aviation: Icing
• Cooling the Air to the Dew or Frost Point
• Diabatic Processes
• Adiabatic Processes
• 5–5 Physical Principles: Adiabatic Lapse Rates and the First Law of Thermodynamics
• The Environmental Lapse Rate
• 5–6 Physical Principles: The Varying Value of the Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate
• Forms of Condensation and Deposition
• Dew
• Frost
• Frozen Dew
• Fog
• Distribution of Fog
• Formation and Dissipation of Cloud Droplets
• High Humidity and Human Discomfort
• 5–7 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: High Temperatures and Human Health
• Atmospheric Moisture and Climate Change
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Chapter 6: Cloud Development and Forms
• Mechanisms That Lift Air
• Orographic Uplift
• Frontal Lifting
• Convergence
• Localized Convection
• Static Stability and the Environmental Lapse Rate
• Buoyancy, Static Stability, and Lapse Rates
• Absolutely Unstable Air
• Absolutely Stable Air
• Conditionally Unstable Air
• 6–1 Forecasting: Determining Stability from Thermodynamic Diagrams
• Static and Potential Instability
• Factors Influencing the Environmental Lapse Rate
• Heating or Cooling of the Lower Atmosphere
• Advection of Cold and Warm Air at Different Levels
• 6–2 Forecasting: Potential Instability
• Advection of an Air Mass with a Different ELR
• Limitations on the Lifting of Unstable Air
• A Layer of Stable Air
• Entrainment
• Extremely Stable Air: Inversions
• 6–3 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Radiation Inversions and Human Activities
• Cloud Types
• High Clouds
• Middle Clouds
• Low Clouds
• Clouds with Vertical Development
• Unusual Clouds
• 6–4 Focus on Aviation: Responding to Icing in Different Types of Clouds
• 6–5 Forecasting: Why Clouds Have Clearly Defined Boundaries
• Cloud Coverage and Observation
• Surface-Based Observation of Clouds
• Cloud Observation by Satellite
• 6–6 Physical Principles: The Surprising Composition of Clouds
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Chapter 7: Precipitation Processes
• Growth of Cloud Droplets
• Growth by Condensation
• Growth in Warm Clouds
• 7–1 Physical Principles: Why Cloud Droplets Don’t Fall
• Growth in Cool and Cold Clouds
• Distribution and Forms of Precipitation
• Snow
• Rain
• Graupel and Hail
• 7–2 Physical Principles: The Effect of Hail Size on Damage
• Sleet
• Freezing Rain
• Measuring Precipitation
• Rain Gauges
• Snow Measurement
• Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network
• Cloud Seeding
• 7–3 Focus on Aviation: Fog Seeding at Airports
• 7–4 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Floods in the Midwestern United States
• Floods
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Part 3: Distribution and Movement of Air
• Chapter 8: Atmospheric Circulation and Pressure Distributions
• The Concept of Scale
• Single-Cell Model
• The Three-Cell Model
• The Hadley Cell
• 8–1 Physical Principles: Maintaining General Circulation
• The Ferrel and Polar Cells
• The Three-Cell Model vs. Reality: The Bottom Line
• Semipermanent Pressure Cells
• The Upper Troposphere
• Westerly Winds in the Upper Atmosphere
• The Polar Front and Jet Streams
• Troughs and Ridges
• Rossby Waves
• 8–2 Physical Principles: The Movement of Rossby Waves
• 8–3 Physical Principles: The Dishpan Experiment
• Atmospheric Rivers
• Ocean Circulation
• Causes of Ocean Currents
• Upwelling and Downwelling
• Major Wind Systems
• Monsoons
• Foehn, Chinook, and Santa Ana Winds
• 8–4 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Wildfires
• Katabatic Winds
• Sea and Land Breezes
• Valley and Mountain Breezes
• Ocean–Atmosphere Interactions
• El Niño, La Niña, and the Walker Cell
• Pacific Decadal Oscillation
• 8–5 Physical Principles: What Causes El Niños and La Niñas?
• Arctic Oscillation and North Atlantic Oscillation
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Chapter 9: Air Masses and Fronts
• Air Masses and Their Source Regions
• Source Regions
• Air Mass Formation
• Continental Polar (cP) and Continental Arctic (cA) Air Masses
• Maritime Polar (mP) Air Masses
• Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses
• Maritime Tropical (mT) Air Masses
• Fronts
• 9–1 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Air Mass Weather: Oppressive Heat and Humidity
• 9–2 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: The Pineapple Express
• Cold Fronts
• Warm Fronts
• 9–3 Focus on Severe Weather: A Cold Front Chills Louisiana
• Stationary Fronts
• Occluded Fronts
• Drylines
• 9–4 Focus on Severe Weather: Interacting Air Masses Spawn a Powerful Nor’easter
• 9–5 Focus on Aviation: Density Altitude and Aircraft Performance
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Part 4: Disturbances
• Chapter 10: Midlatitude Cyclones
• Polar Front Theory
• The Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone
• Cyclogenesis
• Mature Cyclones
• Occlusion
• Location and Movement of Cyclones
• 10–1 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: 2013 Great Plains Blizzard
• Processes of the Middle and Upper Troposphere
• Rossby Waves and Vorticity
• Surface Fronts and Upper-Level Patterns
• 10–2 Physical Principles: Vorticity and the Maintenance of Rossby Waves
• 10–3 Physical Principles: A Closer Look at Divergence and Convergence
• Cold Fronts and the Formation of Upper-Level Troughs
• 10–4 Forecasting: Short Waves in the Upper Atmosphere and Their Effect on Surface Conditions
• Interaction of Surface and Upper-Level Conditions
• An Example of a Midlatitude Cyclone
• April 15
• April 16
• April 17
• April 18
• Flow Patterns and Large-Scale Weather
• The Steering of Midlatitude Cyclones
• Migration of Surface Cyclones Relative to Rossby Waves
• The Modern View: Midlatitude Cyclones and Conveyor Belts
• Anticyclones
• Climate Change and Midlatitude Cyclones
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Chapter 11: Lightning, Thunder, and Tornadoes
• Processes of Lightning Formation
• Charge Separation
• 11–1 Physical Principles: Electricity in the Atmosphere
• Leaders, Strokes, and Flashes
• Types of Lightning
• 11–2 Focus on Severe Weather: A Personal Account of Ball Lightning
• Thunder
• Lightning Safety
• 11–3 Focus on Aviation: Lightning and Aircraft
• Thunderstorms: Air Mass, Multicell, and Supercell
• Air Mass Thunderstorms
• Multicell and Supercell Storms
• Downbursts, Derechos, Microbursts, and Haboobs
• 11–4 Forecasting: Doppler Radar
• Floods and Flash Floods
• 11–5 Focus on Aviation: Microbursts
• Distribution of Thunderstorms
• Tornadoes
• Tornado Characteristics and Dimensions
• Tornado Formation
• The Location and Timing of Tornadoes
• Tornado Hazards and Forecasting
• Tornado Damage
• Tornado Outbreaks
• Trends in U.S. Tornado Occurrence
• Fatalities
• Saving Lives: Watches and Warnings
• 11–6 Focus on Severe Weather: Deadly 2011 and 2013 Tornado Seasons
• Tornado Forecasting: Convective Outlooks
• Waterspouts
• 11–7 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Life and Death Decisions with the Threat of To
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Chapter 12: Tropical Storms and Hurricanes
• Hurricanes Around the Globe: The Tropical Setting
• Hurricane Characteristics
• Hurricane Structure
• Temperature Gradients Within a Hurricane
• The Eye and the Eye Wall—A Closer Look
• Steps in the Formation of Hurricanes
• Tropical Disturbances
• Tropical Depressions and Tropical Storms
• Hurricanes
• 12–1 Forecasting: Naming Hurricanes
• Conditions Necessary for Hurricane Formation
• Hurricane Movement and Dissipation
• Hurricane Paths
• Hurricane Dissipation
• 12–2 Focus on Severe Weather: 2005—A Historic Hurricane Season
• Effect of Landfall
• Hurricane Destruction and Fatalities
• Wind
• Heavy Rain
• 12–3 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Superstorm Sandy, 2012
• Tornadoes
• Storm Surges
• Hurricane Fatalities
• 12–4 Focus on Severe Weather: Hurricane Katrina
• Hurricane Forecasts and Advisories
• Hurricane Watches and Warnings
• Hurricane Intensity Scale
• Recent (and Future?) Trends in Hurricane Activity
• Effects of Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation
• Effects of Climate Change
• 12–5 Focus on Severe Weather: The Galveston Hurricane of 1900
• 12–6 Focus on Severe Weather: Recent Deadly Cyclones
• 12–7 Focus on Aviation: Airports’ and Airlines’ Response to Hurricanes
• Factors Affecting Future Trends
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Part 5: Weather Forecasting and Human Impacts on the Atmosphere
• Chapter 13: Weather Forecasting and Analysis
• Weather Forecasting— Both Art and Science
• The Work of a Forecaster
• Why Is Weather Forecasting Imperfect?
• Forecasting Methods
• Types of Forecasts
• Assessing Forecasts
• Data Acquisition and Dissemination
• Forecast Procedures and Products
• Phases in Numerical Modeling
• Models Employed
• 13–1 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Forecasting the Winter of 2013–2014
• Weather Maps and Images
• 13–2 Focus on Aviation: Special Forecasts and Observations for Pilots
• Surface Maps
• Upper-Level Maps
• Satellite Images
• Radar Images
• Thermodynamic Diagrams
• Lifted Index
• K-Index
• Numerical Forecast Models
• Scale Considerations
• Horizontal Representation
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Chapter 14: Human Effects on the Atmosphere
• Atmospheric Pollutants
• Particulates
• 14–1 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Severe Pollution Episodes
• Carbon Oxides
• Sulfur Compounds
• Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
• Volatile Organic Compounds (Hydrocarbons)
• Photochemical Smog
• Air Quality Index
• Atmospheric Conditions and Air Pollution
• Effect of Winds on Horizontal Transport
• Effect of Atmospheric Stability
• The Counteroffensive on Air Pollution
• 14–2 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Smog in Southern California
• Urban Heat Islands
• Radiation Effects
• Changes in Heat Storage
• Sensible and Latent Heat Transfer
• Urban Heat Islands and the Detection of Climate Change?
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Part 6: Current, Past, and Future Climates
• Chapter 15: Earth’s Climates
• Climate and Controlling Factors
• Statistical Properties of Climates
• Climate Variables
• Controlling Factors
• Oceans as a Factor in Climate
• Classifying Climates
• 15–1 Physical Principles: The Thornthwaite Classification System
• The Koeppen System
• Climate Regions over the Oceans
• Tropical Climates
• Tropical Wet (Af)
• Monsoonal (Am)
• Tropical Wet and Dry (Aw)
• Dry Climates
• Subtropical Desert (BWh)
• Subtropical Steppe (BSh)
• Midlatitude Desert (BWk)
• Midlatitude Steppe (BSk)
• Mild Midlatitude Climates
• 15–2 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: North American Prairies
• Mediterranean (Csa, Csb)
• Humid Subtropical (Cfa, Cwa)
• Marine West Coast (Cfb, Cfc)
• Severe Midlatitude Climates
• Humid Continental (Dfa, Dfb, Dwa, Dwb)
• Subarctic (Dfc, Dfd, Dwc, Dwd)
• Polar Climates
• Tundra (ET)
• Ice Cap (EF)
• Highland Climates (H)
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Chapter 16: Climate Changes: Past and Future
• Defining Climate Change
• Blaming Climate Change
• Methods for Determining Past Climates
• Oceanic Deposits
• Ice Cores
• Remnant Landforms
• Past Vegetation
• Past Climates
• Warm Intervals and Ice Ages
• The Pleistocene
• The Last Glacial Maximum
• The Holocene
• The Last Century
• 16–1 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
• Factors Involved in Climatic Change
• Variations in Solar Output
• Changes in Earth’s Orbit
• Changes in Land Configuration and Surface Characteristics
• Changes in Atmospheric Turbidity
• Changes in Radiation-Absorbing Gases
• 16–2 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Carbon Dioxide and the Oceans
• Feedback Mechanisms
• Ice-Albedo Feedback
• Water Vapor and Cloud Feedbacks
• Atmosphere–Biota Interactions
• 16–3 Focus on the Environment and Societal Impacts: Plant Migrations and Global Change
• Atmosphere–Ocean Interactions
• Warming Temperatures and Sea Levels
• Changes in Ocean Circulation
• Projecting Climate Changes
• Identifying the Causes of Climate Change
• General Circulation Models
• Predicted Temperature Trends Through the 21st Century
• Other Effects of Climate Change
• 16–4 Focus on the Environmental and Societal Impacts: Challenges, Mitigation, and Adaptation
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Part 7: Atmospheric Optics and Appendices
• Chapter 17: Atmospheric Optics
• Refraction
• Refraction and the Setting or Rising Sun
• Mirages
• Cloud and Precipitation Optics
• Rainbows
• Halos, Sundogs, and Sun Pillars
• Coronas and Glories
• Summary
• Key Terms
• Review Questions
• Critical Thinking
• Problems & Exercises
• Visual Analysis
• Appendix A: Units of Measurement and Conversions
• Appendix B: The Standard Atmosphere
• Appendix C: Simplified Weather Map Symbols
• Appendix D: Weather Extremes
• Glossary
• A
• B
• C
• D
• E
• F
• G
• H
• I
• J
• K
• L
• M
• N
• O
• P
• Q
• R
• S
• T
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• X
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• Z
• Credits
• Index
• A
• B
• C
• D
• E
• F
• G
• H
• I
• J
• K
• L
• M
• N
• O
• P
• Q
• R
• S
• T
• U
• V
• W
• X
• Y
• Z
• Cloud Guide
• Temperature Change 2081–2100 (Projected)