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• Cover
• Half Title
• Dedication
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Abbreviations, symbols and transcription
• Part I Overview of the Cognitive Linguistics Enterprise
• Introduction
• 1 What does it mean to know a language?
• 1.1 What is language for?
• 1.1.1 The symbolic function of language
• 1.1.2 The interactive function of language
• 1.2 The systematic structure of language
• 1.2.1 Evidence for a system
• 1.2.2 The systematic structure of thought
• 1.3 What do linguists do?
• 1.3.1 What?
• 1.3.2 Why?
• 1.3.3 How?
• 1.3.4 Speaker intuitions
• 1.3.5 Converging evidence
• 1.4 What it means to know a language
• 1.5 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 2 The nature of cognitive linguistics: assumptions and commitments
• 2.1 Two key commitments
• 2.1.1 The ‘Generalisation Commitment’
• 2.1.2 The ‘Cognitive Commitment’
• 2.2 The embodied mind
• 2.2.1 Embodied experience
• 2.2.2 Embodied cognition
• 2.2.3 Experiential realism
• 2.3 Cognitive semantics and cognitive approaches to grammar
• 2.4 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 3 Universals and variation in language, thought and experience
• 3.1 Universals in thought and language
• 3.1.1 Typological universals
• 3.1.2 Universals in formal linguistics
• 3.1.3 Universals in cognitive linguistics
• 3.2 Cross-linguistic patterns in semantic systems
• 3.2.1 Patterns in the conceptualisation of space
• 3.2.2 Patterns in the conceptualisation of time
• 3.3 Cross-linguistic variation in semantic systems
• 3.3.1 Variation in the conceptualisation of space
• 3.3.2 Variation in the conceptualisation of time
• 3.4 Linguistic relativity and cognitive linguistics
• 3.4.1 Whorf and the Linguistic Relativity Principle
• 3.4.2 Language as a shaper of thought
• 3.4.3 The cognitive linguistics position
• 3.5 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 4 Language in use: knowledge of language, language change and language acquisition
• 4.1 Language in use
• 4.1.1 A usage event
• 4.1.2 The relationship between usage and linguistic structure
• 4.1.3 Comprehension and production
• 4.1.4 Context
• 4.1.5 Frequency
• 4.2 Cognitive Grammar
• 4.2.1 Abstraction, schematisation and language use
• 4.2.2 Schemas and their instantiations
• 4.2.3 Partial sanction
• 4.2.4 The non-reductive nature of schemas
• 4.2.5 Frequency in schema formation
• 4.3 A usage-based approach to language change
• 4.3.1 Historical linguistics and language change
• 4.3.2 The Utterance Selection Theory of language change
• 4.3.3 The Generalised Theory of Selection and the Theory of Utterance Selection
• 4.3.4 Causal mechanisms for language change
• 4.4 The usage-based approach to language acquisition
• 4.4.1 Empirical findings in language acquisition
• 4.4.2 The cognitive view: socio-cognitive mechanisms in language acquisition
• 4.4.3 Comparing the generative view of language acquisition
• 4.5 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• Part II Cognitive Semantics
• Introduction
• 5 What is cognitive semantics?
• 5.1 Guiding principles
• 5.1.1 Conceptual structure is embodied
• 5.1.2 Semantic structure is conceptual structure
• 5.1.3 Meaning representation is encyclopaedic
• 5.1.4 Meaning construction is conceptualisation
• 5.2 Phenomena investigated within cognitive semantics
• 5.2.1 The bodily basis of meaning
• 5.2.2 Conceptual structure
• 5.2.3 Encyclopaedic semantics
• 5.2.4 Mappings
• 5.2.5 Categorisation
• 5.2.6 Word meaning and polysemy
• 5.3 Methodology
• 5.4 Some comparisons with formal approaches to semantics
• 5.5 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 6 Embodiment and conceptual structure
• 6.1 Image schemas
• 6.1.1 What is an image schema?
• 6.1.2 Properties of image schemas
• 6.1.3 Image schemas and linguistic meaning
• 6.1.4 A provisional list of image schemas
• 6.1.5 Image schemas and abstract thought
• 6.2 Conceptual structure
• 6.2.1 Semantic structure
• 6.2.2 Schematic systems
• 6.3 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 7 The encyclopaedic view of meaning
• 7.1 Dictionaries versus encylopaedias
• 7.1.1 The dictionary view
• 7.1.2 Problems with the dictionary view
• 7.1.3 Word meaning versus sentence meaning
• 7.1.4 The encyclopaedic view
• 7.2 Frame semantics
• 7.2.1 What is a semantic frame?
• 7.2.2 Frames in cognitive psychology
• 7.2.3 The COMMERCIAL EVENT frame
• 7.2.4 Speech event frames
• 7.2.5 Consequences of adopting a frame-based model
• 7.3 The theory of domains
• 7.3.1 What is a domain?
• 7.3.2 Basic, image-schematic and abstract domains
• 7.3.3 Other characteristics of domains
• 7.3.4 Profile/base organisation
• 7.3.5 Active zones
• 7.4 The perceptual basis of knowledge representation
• 7.5 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 8 Categorisation and idealised cognitive models
• 8.1 Categorisation and cognitive semantics
• 8.1.1 The classical theory
• 8.1.2 The definitional problem
• 8.1.3 The problem of conceptual fuzziness
• 8.1.4 The problem of prototypicality
• 8.1.5 Further problems
• 8.2 Prototype theory
• 8.2.1 Principles of categorisation
• 8.2.2 The categorisation system
• 8.2.3 The vertical dimension
• 8.2.4 The horizontal dimension
• 8.2.5 Problems with prototype theory
• 8.3 The theory of idealised cognitive models
• 8.3.1 Sources of typicality effects
• 8.3.2 Radial categories as a further source of typicality effects
• 8.3.3 Addressing the problems with prototype theory
• 8.4 The structure of ICMs
• 8.5 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 9 Metaphor and metonymy
• 9.1 Literal versus figurative language
• 9.1.1 Literal and figurative language as complex concepts
• 9.1.2 Can the distinction be maintained?
• 9.2 What is metaphor?
• 9.3 Conceptual Metaphor Theory
• 9.3.1 The unidirectionality of metaphor
• 9.3.2 Motivation for target and source
• 9.3.3 Metaphorical entailments
• 9.3.4 Metaphor systems
• 9.3.5 Metaphors and image schemas
• 9.3.6 Invariance
• 9.3.7 The conceptual nature of metaphor
• 9.3.8 Hiding and highlighting
• 9.4 Primary Metaphor Theory
• 9.4.1 Primary and compound metaphors
• 9.4.2 Experiential correlation
• 9.4.3 Motivating primary metaphors
• 9.4.4 Distinguishing primary and compound metaphors
• 9.5 What is metonymy?
• 9.6 Conceptual metonymy
• 9.6.1 Metonymy as an access mechanism
• 9.6.2 Metonymy-producing relationships
• 9.6.3 Vehicles for metonymy
• 9.7 Metaphor-metonymy interaction
• 9.8 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 10 Word meaning and radial categories
• 10.1 Polysemy as a conceptual phenomenon
• 10.2 Words as radial categories
• 10.3 The full-specification approach
• 10.3.1 Image schema transformations
• 10.3.2 Metaphorical extensions
• 10.4 Problems with the full-specification approach
• 10.5 The Principled Polysemy approach
• 10.5.1 Distinguishing between senses
• 10.5.2 Establishing the prototypical sense
• 10.5.3 Illustration of a radial category based on Principled Polysemy
• 10.5.4 Beyond prepositions
• 10.6 The importance of context for polysemy
• 10.6.1 Usage context: subsenses
• 10.6.2 Sentential context: facets
• 10.6.3 Knowledge context: ways of seeing
• 10.7 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 11 Meaning construction and mental spaces
• 11.1 Sentence meaning in formal semantics
• 11.2 Meaning construction in cognitive semantics
• 11.3 Towards a cognitive theory of meaning construction
• 11.4 The architecture of mental space construction
• 11.4.1 Space builders
• 11.4.2 Elements
• 11.4.3 Properties and relations
• 11.4.4 Mental space lattices
• 11.4.5 Counterparts and connectors
• 11.4.6 The Access Principle
• 11.4.7 Roles and values
• 11.5 An illustration of mental space construction
• 11.6 The dynamic nature of meaning construction
• 11.6.1 Tense and aspect in English
• 11.6.2 The tense-aspect system in Mental Spaces Theory
• 11.6.3 Epistemic distance
• 11.7 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 12 Conceptual blending
• 12.1 The origins of Blending Theory
• 12.2 Towards a theory of conceptual integration
• 12.3 The nature of blending
• 12.3.1 The elements of conceptual blending
• 12.3.2 Further linguistic examples
• 12.3.3 Non-linguistic examples
• 12.4 Vital relations and compressions
• 12.4.1 Vital relations
• 12.4.2 A taxonomy of vital relations and their compressions
• 12.4.3 Disintegration and decompression
• 12.5 A taxonomy of integration networks
• 12.5.1 Simplex networks
• 12.5.2 Mirror networks
• 12.5.3 Single-scope networks
• 12.5.4 Double-scope networks
• 12.6 Multiple blending
• 12.7 Constraining Blending Theory
• 12.8 Comparing Blending Theory with Conceptual Metaphor Theory
• 12.8.1 Contrasts
• 12.8.2 When is a metaphor not a blend?
• 12.8.3 What Blending Theory adds to Conceptual Metaphor Theory
• 12.9 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 13 Cognitive semantics in context
• 13.1 Truth-conditional semantics
• 13.1.1 Meaning, truth and reality
• 13.1.2 Object language versus metalanguage
• 13.1.3 The inconsistency of natural language
• 13.1.4 Sentences and propositions
• 13.1.5 Truth-conditional semantics and the generative enterprise
• 13.1.6 Compositionality of meaning
• 13.1.7 Translating natural language into a metalanguage
• 13.1.8 Semantic interpretation and matching
• 13.1.9 Comparison with cognitive semantics
• 13.2 Relevance Theory
• 13.2.1 Ostensive communication
• 13.2.2 Mutual cognitive environment
• 13.2.3 Relevance
• 13.2.4 Explicature and implicature
• 13.2.5 Metaphor
• 13.2.6 Comparison with cognitive semantics
• 13.3 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• Part III Cognitive Approaches to Grammar
• Introduction
• 14 What is a cognitive approach to grammar?
• 14.1 Guiding assumptions
• 14.1.1 The symbolic thesis
• 14.1.2 The usage-based thesis
• 14.1.3 The architecture of the model
• 14.2 Distinct cognitive approaches to grammar
• 14.2.1 The ‘Conceptual Structuring System Model’
• 14.2.2 Cognitive Grammar
• 14.2.3 Constructional approaches to grammar
• 14.2.4 Cognitive approaches to grammaticalisation
• 14.3 Grammatical terminology
• 14.3.1 Grammar
• 14.3.2 Units of grammar
• 14.3.3 Word classes
• 14.3.4 Syntax
• 14.3.5 Grammatical functions
• 14.3.6 Agreement and case
• 14.4 Characteristics of the cognitive approach to grammar
• 14.4.1 Grammatical knowledge: a structured inventory of symbolic units
• 14.4.2 Features of the closed-class subsystem
• 14.4.3 Schemas and instances
• 14.4.4 Sanctioning and grammaticality
• 14.5 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 15 The conceptual basis of grammar
• 15.1 The grammatical subsystem: encoding semantic structure
• 15.2 Talmy’s ‘Conceptual Structuring System Model’
• 15.2.1 The configuration of SPACE and TIME
• 15.2.2 Conceptual alternativity
• 15.2.3 Schematic systems
• 15.2.4 The ‘Configurational Structure System’
• 15.2.5 The ‘Attentional System’
• 15.2.6 The ‘Perspectival System’
• 15.2.7 The ‘Force-Dynamics System’
• 15.3 Langacker’s theory of Cognitive Grammar
• 15.3.1 The conceptual basis of word classes
• 15.3.2 Attention
• 15.3.3 Force-dynamics
• 15.4 Categorisation and polysemy in grammar: the network conception
• 15.5 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 16 Cognitive Grammar: word classes
• 16.1 Word classes: linguistic categorisation
• 16.2 Nominal predications: nouns
• 16.2.1 Bounding
• 16.2.2 Homogeneity versus heterogeneity
• 16.2.3 Expansibility and contractibility versus replicability
• 16.2.4 Abstractions
• 16.3 Nominal versus relational predications
• 16.4 Temporal versus atemporal relations
• 16.4.1 Temporal relations: verbs
• 16.4.2 Atemporal relations
• 16.4.3 Class schemas
• 16.5 Nominal grounding predications
• 16.5.1 Determiners and quantifiers
• 16.5.2 Grounding
• 16.6 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 17 Cognitive Grammar: constructions
• 17.1 Phrase structure
• 17.1.1 Valence
• 17.1.2 Correspondence
• 17.1.3 Profile determinacy
• 17.1.4 Conceptual autonomy versus conceptual dependence
• 17.1.5 Constituency
• 17.1.6 The prototypical grammatical construction
• 17.2 Word structure
• 17.2.1 Phonological autonomy and dependence
• 17.2.2 Semantic autonomy and dependence
• 17.2.3 Prototypical stems and affixes
• 17.2.4 Composite structure
• 17.2.5 Constructional schemas
• 17.2.6 Grammatical morphemes and agreement
• 17.3 Clauses
• 17.3.1 Valence at the clause level
• 17.3.2 Grammatical functions and transitivity
• 17.3.3 Case
• 17.3.4 Marked coding: the passive construction
• 17.4 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 18 Cognitive Grammar: tense, aspect, mood and voice
• 18.1 English verbs: form and function
• 18.2 The clausal head
• 18.2.1 The passive construction: [be2 [PERF3 [V]]]
• 18.2.2 The progressive construction: [be1 [-ing [V]]]
• 18.2.3 The perfect construction: [have [PERF4 [V]]]
• 18.3 The grounding predication: mood and tense
• 18.3.1 Mood
• 18.3.2 Tense
• 18.3.3 The epistemic model
• 18.4 Situation aspect
• 18.4.1 Situation types
• 18.4.2 Perfective and imperfective PROCESSES
• 18.4.3 Aspect and the count/mass distinction
• 18.5 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 19 Motivating a construction grammar
• 19.1 Constructions versus ‘words and rules’
• 19.2 Exploring idiomatic expressions
• 19.2.1 Typology of idiomatic expressions
• 19.2.2 Case study I: the let alone construction
• 19.2.3 Case study II: the what’s X doing Y construction
• 19.3 Construction Grammar
• 19.3.1 The Construction Grammar model
• 19.3.2 Construction Grammar: a ‘broadly generative’ model
• 19.3.3 Comparing Construction Grammar with Cognitive Grammar
• 19.4 The ‘Generalisation Commitment’
• 19.5 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 20 The architecture of construction grammars
• 20.1 Goldberg’s construction grammar
• 20.1.1 Assumptions
• 20.1.2 Advantages of a constructional approach to verb argument structure
• 20.1.3 The relationship between verbs and constructions
• 20.1.4 Relationships between constructions
• 20.1.5 Case studies
• 20.2 Radical Construction Grammar
• 20.2.1 Taxonomy of constructions
• 20.2.2 Emphasis on diversity
• 20.2.3 Five key features of RCG
• 20.3 Embodied Construction Grammar
• 20.3.1 Emphasis on language processing
• 20.3.2 Analysis and simulation
• 20.4 Comparing constructional approaches to grammar
• 20.5 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 21 Grammaticalisation
• 21.1 The nature of grammaticalisation
• 21.1.1 Form change
• 21.1.2 Meaning change
• 21.2 Metaphorical extension approaches
• 21.2.1 Case study: OBJECT-TO-SPACE
• 21.2.2 Case study: SPACE-TO-POSSESSION
• 21.3 Invited Inferencing Theory
• 21.3.1 Case study: the evolution of must
• 21.4 The subjectification approach
• 21.4.1 Case study: be going to
• 21.4.2 Case study: the evolution of auxiliaries from verbs of motion or posture
• 21.5 Comparison of the three approaches: be going to
• 21.6 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• 22 Cognitive approaches to grammar in context
• 22.1 Theories of grammar: assumptions, objectives, methodology
• 22.1.1 Cognitive approaches to grammar
• 22.1.2 Generative approaches to grammar
• 22.1.3 Cognitive versus generative models
• 22.1.4 Functional-typological approaches to grammar
• 22.2 Core issues in grammar: comparing cognitive and generative accounts
• 22.2.1 Word classes
• 22.2.2 Constituency: heads and dependents
• 22.2.3 The status of tree diagrams
• 22.2.4 Grammatical functions and case
• 22.2.5 The verb string: tense, aspect and mood
• 22.2.6 The passive construction
• 22.3 Summary
• Further reading
• Exercises
• Part IV Conclusion
• 23 Assessing the cognitive linguistics enterprise
• 23.1 Achievements
• 23.2 Remaining challenges
• 23.3 Summary
• Appendix: Tables and Figures
• References
• Index