Efnisyfirlit

• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• About the Author
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Brief Contents
• Contents
• List of Boxes
• 1 Introduction to Physiology
• 1.1 Organization of the Body
• Cells, Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems
• The Overall Body Plan: A Simplified View
• 1.2 Homeostasis: A Central Organizing Principle of Physiology
• Negative Feedback Control in Homeostasis
• 1.3 The Diabetes Epidemic
• Prevalence of Diabetes
• Obesity and Diabetes
• Classification of Diabetes
• Diagnosing Diabetes Mellitus
• Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus
• Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 2 The Cell Structure and Function
• 2.1 Biomolecules
• Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides
• Lipids
• Amino Acids and Proteins
• Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
• 2.2 Cell Structure
• Structure of the Plasma Membrane
• Structure of the Nucleus
• Contents of the Cytosol
• Structure of Membranous Organelles
• Structure of Nonmembranous Organelles
• 2.3 Cell-to-Cell Adhesions
• Tight Junctions
• Desmosomes
• Gap Junctions
• 2.4 General Cell Functions
• Metabolism
• Cellular Transport
• Intercellular Communication
• 2.5 Protein Synthesis
• The Role of the Genetic Code
• Transcription
• Destination of Proteins
• Post-translational Processing and Packaging of Proteins
• Regulation of Protein Synthesis
• Protein Degradation
• 2.6 Cell Division
• Replication of DNA
• The Cell Cycle
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 3 Cell Metabolism
• 3.1 Types of Metabolic Reactions
• Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
• Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation Reactions
• Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• 3.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy
• Energy and the Laws of Thermodynamics
• Energy Changes in Reactions
• Activation Energy
• 3.3 Reaction Rates
• Factors Affecting the Rates of Chemical Reactions
• The Role of Enzymes in Chemical Reactions
• 3.4 ATP: The Medium of Energy Exchange
• 3.5 Glucose Oxidation: The Central Reaction of Energy Metabolism
• Coupling Glucose Oxidation to ATP Synthesis
• 3.6 Stages of Glucose Oxidation: Glycolysis, the Krebs Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation
• Glycolysis
• The Krebs Cycle
• Oxidative Phosphorylation
• The Electron Transport Chain
• Summary of Glucose Oxidation
• Glucose Catabolism in the Absence of Oxygen
• 3.7 Energy Storage and Use: Metabolism of Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins
• Glycogen Metabolism
• Gluconeogenesis: Formation of New Glucose
• Fat Metabolism
• Protein Metabolism
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 4 Cell Membrane Transport
• 4.1 Factors Affecting the Direction of Transport
• Passive Transport Versus Active Transport
• Driving Forces Acting on Molecules
• 4.2 Rate of Transport
• 4.3 Passive Transport
• Simple Diffusion: Passive Transport Through the Lipid Bilayer
• Facilitated Diffusion: Passive Transport Utilizing Membrane Proteins
• Diffusion Through Channels
• 4.4 Active Transport
• Primary Active Transport
• Secondary Active Transport
• Factors Affecting Rates of Active Transport
• Coexistence of Active and Passive Transport Mechanisms in Cells
• 4.5 Osmosis: Passive Transport of Water Across Membranes
• Osmolarity
• Osmotic Pressure
• Tonicity
• 4.6 Transport of Material Within Membrane-Bound Compartments
• Transport of Molecules into Cells by Endocytosis
• Transport of Molecules Out of Cells by Exocytosis
• 4.7 Epithelial Transport: Movement of Molecules Across Two Membranes
• Epithelial Solute Transport
• Epithelial Structure
• Epithelial Water Transport
• Transcytosis
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 5 Chemical Messengers
• 5.1 Mechanisms of Intercellular Communication
• Direct Communication Through Gap Junctions
• Indirect Communication Through Chemical Messengers
• 5.2 Chemical Messengers
• Functional Classification of Chemical Messengers
• Chemical Classification of Messengers
• Synthesis and Release of Chemical Messengers
• Transport of Messengers
• 5.3 Signal Transduction Mechanisms
• Properties of Receptors
• Signal Transduction Mechanisms for Responses Mediated by Intracellular Receptors
• Signal Transduction Mechanisms for Responses Mediated by Membrane-Bound Receptors
• 5.4 Long-Distance Communication via the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 6 The Endocrine System:Endocrine Glandsand Hormone Actions
• 6.1 Primary Endocrine Organs
• Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
• Pineal Gland
• Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid Glands
• Thymus
• Adrenal Glands
• Pancreas
• Gonads
• 6.2 Secondary Endocrine Organs
• 6.3 Hormone Actions at the Target Cell
• Control of Hormone Levels in Blood
• 6.4 Abnormal Secretion of Hormones
• 6.5 Hormone Interactions
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 7 Nerve Cells and Electrical Signaling
• 7.1 Overview of the Nervous System
• 7.2 Cells of the Nervous System
• Neurons
• Glial Cells
• 7.3 Establishment of the Resting Membrane Potential
• Determining the Equilibrium Potentials for Potassium and Sodium Ions
• Resting Membrane Potential of Neurons
• Neurons at Rest
• 7.4 Electrical Signaling Through Changes in Membrane Potential
• Describing Changes in Membrane Potential
• Graded Potentials
• Action Potentials
• Propagation of Action Potentials
• 7.5 Maintaining Neural Stability
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 8 Synaptic Transmission and Neural Integration
• 8.1 Electrical Synapses
• 8.2 Chemical Synapses
• Functional Anatomy of Chemical Synapses
• Signal Transduction Mechanisms at Chemical Synapses
• Excitatory Synapses
• Inhibitory Synapses
• 8.3 Neural Integration
• Summation
• Frequency Coding
• 8.4 Presynaptic Modulation
• Presynaptic Facilitation
• Presynaptic Inhibition
• 8.5 Neurotransmitters: Structure, Synthesis, and Degradation
• Acetylcholine
• Biogenic Amines
• Purines
• Amino Acid Neurotransmitters
• Neuropeptides
• Unique Neurotransmitters
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 9 The Nervous System:Central Nervous System
• 9.1 General Anatomy of the Central Nervous System
• Glial Cells
• Physical Support of the Central Nervous System
• Blood Supply to the Central Nervous System
• The Blood-Brain Barrier
• Gray Matter and White Matter
• 9.2 The Spinal Cord
• Spinal Nerves
• Spinal Cord Gray and White Matter
• 9.3 The Brain
• Cerebral Cortex
• Subcortical Nuclei
• Diencephalon
• Limbic System
• 9.4 Integrated CNS Function: Involuntary Movement Through Reflexes
• Stretch Reflex
• Withdrawal and Crossed-Extensor Reflexes
• 9.5 Integrated CNS Function: Voluntary Motor Control
• Neural Components for Smooth Voluntary Movements
• Lateral Pathways Control Voluntary Movement
• Ventromedial Pathways Control Voluntary and Involuntary Movements
• The Control of Posture by the Brainstem
• The Role of the Cerebellum in Motor Coordination
• The Basal Nuclei in Motor Control
• 9.6 Integrated CNS Function: Language
• 9.7 Integrated CNS Function: Sleep
• Functions of Sleep
• Sleep-Wake Cycles
• Electrical Activity During Wakefulness and Sleep
• 9.8 Integrated CNS Function: Emotions and Motivation
• 9.9 Integrated CNS Function: Learning and Memory
• Learning
• Memory
• Plasticity in the Nervous System
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 10 The Nervous System: Sensory Systems
• 10.1 General Principles of Sensory Physiology
• Receptor Physiology
• Sensory Pathways
• Sensory Coding
• 10.2 The Somatosensory System
• Somatosensory Receptors
• The Somatosensory Cortex
• Somatosensory Pathways
• Pain Perception
• 10.3 Vision
• Anatomy of the Eye
• The Nature and Behavior of Light Waves
• Accommodation
• Clinical Defects in Vision
• Regulating the Amount of Light Entering the Eye
• The Retina
• Phototransduction
• Rods versus Cones
• Color Vision
• Light Input to Circadian Rhythms
• Bleaching of Photoreceptors in Light
• Neural Processing in the Retina
• Neural Pathways for Vision
• Parallel Processing in the Visual System
• Depth Perception
• 10.4 The Ear and Hearing
• Anatomy of the Ear
• The Nature of Sound Waves
• Sound Amplification in the Middle Ear
• Signal Transduction for Sound
• Neural Pathways for Sound
• 10.5 The Ear and Equilibrium
• Anatomy of the Vestibular Apparatus
• The Semicircular Canals and the Transduction of Rotation
• The Utricle and Saccule and the Transduction of Linear Acceleration
• Neural Pathways for Equilibrium
• 10.6 Taste
• Anatomy of Taste Buds
• Signal Transduction in Taste
• Neural Pathway for Taste
• 10.7 Olfaction
• Anatomy of the Olfactory System
• Olfactory Signal Transduction
• Neural Pathway for Olfaction
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 11 The Nervous System:Autonomic and MotorSystems
• 11.1 The Autonomic Nervous System
• Dual Innervation in the Autonomic Nervous System
• Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System
• Autonomic Neurotransmitters and Receptors
• Autonomic Neuroeffector Junctions
• Regulation of Autonomic Function
• 11.2 The Somatic Nervous System
• Anatomy of the Somatic Nervous System
• The Neuromuscular Junction
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 12 Muscle Physiology
• 12.1 Skeletal Muscle Structure
• Structure at the Cellular Level
• Structure at the Molecular Level
• 12.2 The Mechanism of Force Generation in Muscle
• The Sliding-Filament Model
• The Crossbridge Cycle: How Muscles Generate Force
• Excitation-Contraction Coupling: How Muscle Contractions Are Turned On and Off
• 12.3 The Mechanics of Skeletal Muscle Contraction
• The Twitch
• Factors Affecting the Force Generated by Individual Muscle Fibers
• Regulation of the Force Generated by Whole Muscles
• Velocity of Shortening
• 12.4 Skeletal Muscle Metabolism
• Muscle Cell Metabolism: How Muscle Cells Generate ATP
• Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
• 12.5 Control of Skeletal Muscle Activity
• Muscle Activity Across Joints
• Muscle Receptors for Coordinated Activity
• 12.6 Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
• Smooth Muscle
• Cardiac Muscle
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 13 The Cardiovascular System: Cardiac Function
• 13.1 An Overview of the Cardiovascular System
• The Heart
• Blood Vessels
• Blood
• 13.2 The Path of Blood Flow Through the Heart and Vasculature
• Series Flow Through the Cardiovascular System
• Parallel Flow Within the Systemic or Pulmonary Circuit
• 13.3 Anatomy of the Heart
• Myocardium and the Heart Wall
• Valves and Unidirectional Blood Flow
• 13.4 Electrical Activity of the Heart
• The Conduction System of the Heart
• Spread of Excitation Through the Heart Muscle
• The Ionic Basis of Electrical Activity in the Heart
• Recording the Electrical Activity of the Heart with an Electrocardiogram
• 13.5 The Cardiac Cycle
• Phases of the Cardiac Cycle
• Atrial and Ventricular Pressure
• Aortic Pressure
• Ventricular Volume
• Pressure-Volume Curve
• Heart Sounds
• 13.6 Cardiac Output and Its Control
• Autonomic Input to the Heart
• Factors Affecting Cardiac Output: Changes in Heart Rate
• Factors Affecting Cardiac Output: Changes in Stroke Volume
• Integration of Factors Affecting Cardiac Output
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 14 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels, Blood Flow,and Blood Pressure
• 14.1 Physical Laws Governing Blood Flow and Blood Pressure
• Pressure Gradients in the Cardiovascular System
• Resistance in the Cardiovascular System
• Relating Pressure Gradients and Resistance in the Systemic Circulation
• 14.2 Overview of the Vasculature
• 14.3 Arteries
• Arteries: A Pressure Reservoir
• Arterial Blood Pressure
• 14.4 Arterioles
• Arterioles and Resistance to Blood Flow
• Intrinsic Control of Blood Flow Distribution to Organs
• Extrinsic Control of Arteriole Radius and Mean Arterial Pressure
• 14.5 Capillaries and Venules
• Capillary Anatomy
• Local Control of Blood Flow Through Capillary Beds
• Movement of Material Across Capillary Walls
• Venules
• 14.6 Veins
• Veins: A Volume Reservoir
• Factors That Influence Venous Pressure and Venous Return
• 14.7 The Lymphatic System
• 14.8 Mean Arterial Pressure and Its Regulation
• Determinants of Mean Arterial Pressure: Heart Rate, Stroke Volume, and Total Peripheral Resistance
• Regulation of Mean Arterial Pressure
• Control of Blood Pressure by LowPressure Baroreceptors (Volume Receptors)
• 14.9 Other Cardiovascular Regulatory Processes
• Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia
• Chemoreceptor Reflexes
• Thermoregulatory Responses
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 15 The Cardiovascular System: Blood
• 15.1 Overview of the Composition of Blood: The Hematocrit
• 15.3 Erythrocytes
• 15.2 Plasma
• Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport
• Life Cycle of Erythrocytes
• 15.4 Leukocytes
• Basophils
• Monocytes
• Neutrophils
• Eosinophils
• Lymphocytes
• 15.5 Platelets and Hemostasis
• Vascular Spasm
• Platelet Plug
• Formation of a Blood Clot
• 15.6 Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 16 The Respiratory System: Pulmonary Ventilation
• 16.1 Overview of Respiratory Function
• 16.2 Anatomy of the Respiratory System
• Upper Airways
• The Respiratory Tract
• Structures of the Thoracic Cavity
• 16.3 Forces for Pulmonary Ventilation
• Pulmonary Pressures
• Mechanics of Breathing
• 16.4 Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation
• Lung Compliance
• Airway Resistance
• 16.5 Clinical Significance of Respiratory Volumes and Air Flows
• Lung Volumes and Capacities
• Pulmonary Function Tests
• Alveolar Ventilation
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 17 The Respiratory System:Gas Exchange and Regulation of Breathing
• 17.1 Overview of the Pulmonary Circulation
• 17.2 Diffusion of Gases
• Partial Pressure of Gases
• Solubility of Gases in Liquids
• 17.3 Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
• Gas Exchange in the Lungs
• Gas Exchange in Respiring Tissue
• Determinants of Alveolar Po2 and Pco2
• 17.4 Transport of Gases in the Blood
• Oxygen Transport in the Blood
• Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood
• 17.5 Central Regulation of Ventilation
• Neural Control of Breathing by Motor Neurons
• Generation of the Breathing Rhythm in the Brainstem
• Peripheral Input to Respiratory Centers
• 17.6 Control of Ventilation by Chemoreceptors
• Chemoreceptors
• Chemoreceptor Reflexes
• 17.7 Local Regulation of Ventilation and Perfusion
• Ventilation-Perfusion Ratios
• Local Control of Ventilation and Perfusion
• 17.8 The Respiratory System in Acid-Base Homeostasis
• Acid-Base Disturbances in Blood
• The Role of the Respiratory System in Acid-Base Balance
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 18 Urinary System: Renal Function
• 18.1 Functions of the Urinary System
• 18.2 Anatomy of the Urinary System
• Structures of the Urinary System
• Macroscopic Anatomy of the Kidney
• Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney
• Blood Supply to the Kidney
• 18.3 Basic Renal Exchange Processes
• Glomerular Filtration
• Reabsorption
• Transport Maximum
• Secretion
• 18.4 Regional Specialization of the Renal Tubules
• Nonregulated Reabsorption in the Proximal Tubule
• Regulated Reabsorption and Secretion in the Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct
• Water Conservation in the Loop of Henle
• 18.5 Excretion
• Clearance
• Excretion Rate
• Micturition
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 19 The Urinary System:Fluid and ElectrolyteBalance
• 19.1 The Concept of Balance
• Factors Affecting the Plasma Composition
• Solute and Water Balance
• 19.2 Water Balance
• Osmolarity and the Movement of Water
• Water Reabsorption in the Proximal Tubule
• Establishment of the Medullary Osmotic Gradient
• Role of the Medullary Osmotic Gradient in Water Reabsorption in the Distal Tubule and Collecting Duc
• 19.3 Sodium Balance
• Mechanisms of Sodium Reabsorption in the Renal Tubule
• The Effects of Aldosterone
• Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
• 19.4 Potassium Balance
• Renal Handling of Potassium Ions
• Regulation of Potassium Secretion by Aldosterone
• 19.5 Calcium Balance
• Renal Handling of Calcium Ions
• Hormonal Control of Plasma Calcium Concentrations
• 19.6 Interactions Between Fluid and Electrolyte Regulation
• 19.7 Acid-Base Balance
• Sources of Acid-Base Disturbances
• Defense Mechanisms Against Acid-Base Disturbances
• Compensation for Acid-Base Disturbances
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 20 The Gastrointestinal System
• 20.1 Overview of Gastrointestinal System Processes
• 20.2 Functional Anatomy of the Gastrointestinal System
• The Gastrointestinal Tract
• The Accessory Glands
• 20.3 Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients and Water
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Absorption of Vitamins
• Absorption of Minerals
• Absorption of Water
• 20.4 General Principles of Gastrointestinal Regulation
• Neural and Endocrine Pathways of Gastrointestinal Control
• Regulation of Food Intake
• 20.5 Gastrointestinal Secretion and Its Regulation
• Saliva Secretion
• Acid and Pepsinogen Secretion in the Stomach
• Secretion of Pancreatic Juice and Bile
• Rates of Fluid Movement in the Digestive System
• 20.6 Gastrointestinal Motility and Its Regulation
• Electrical Activity in Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle
• Peristalsis and Segmentation
• Chewing and Swallowing
• Gastric Motility
• Motility of the Small Intestine
• Motility of the Colon
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 21 The Endocrine System: Regulation of Energy Metabolism and Growth
• 21.1 An Overview of WholeBody Metabolism
• Anabolism
• Regulation of Metabolic Pathways
• 21.2 Energy Intake, Utilization, and Storage
• Uptake, Utilization, and Storage of Energy in Carbohydrates
• Uptake, Utilization, and Storage of Energy in Proteins
• Uptake, Utilization, and Storage of Energy in Fats
• 21.3 Energy Balance
• Energy Input
• Energy Output
• Metabolic Rate
• Negative and Positive Energy Balance
• 21.4 Energy Metabolism During the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States
• Metabolism During the Absorptive State
• Metabolism During the Postabsorptive State
• 21.5 Regulation of Absorptive and Postabsorptive Metabolism
• The Role of Insulin
• The Role of Glucagon
• Negative Feedback Control of Blood Glucose Levels by Insulin and Glucagon
• Effects of Epinephrine and Sympathetic Nervous Activity on Metabolism
• 21.6 Thermoregulation
• Temperature Balance
• Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Between the Body and the External Environment
• Regulation of Body Temperature
• Alterations in the Set Point for Thermoregulation: Fever
• 21.7 Hormonal Regulation of Growth
• Body Growth
• Effects of Growth Hormone
• Other Hormones That Affect Growth
• 21.8 Thyroid Hormones
• Synthesis and Secretion of Thyroid Hormones
• Actions of Thyroid Hormones
• 21.9 Glucocorticoids
• Factors Affecting Secretion of Glucocorticoids
• Actions of Glucocorticoids
• The Role of Cortisol in the Stress Response
• Effects of Abnormal Glucocorticoid Secretion
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 22 The Reproductive System
• 22.1 An Overview of Reproductive Physiology
• The Role of Gametes in Sexual Reproduction
• Gene Sorting and Packaging in Gametogenesis: Meiosis
• Components of the Reproductive System
• Events Following Fertilization
• Patterns of Reproductive Activity over the Human Life Span
• 22.2 The Male Reproductive System
• Functional Anatomy of the Male Reproductive Organs
• Hormonal Regulation of Reproductive Function in Males
• Sperm and Their Development
• The Sexual Response in Males
• 22.3 The Female Reproductive System
• Functional Anatomy of the Female Reproductive Organs
• Ova and Their Development
• The Sexual Response in Females
• The Menstrual Cycle
• Long-Term Hormonal Regulation of Female Reproductive Function
• 22.4 Fertilization, Implantation, and Pregnancy
• Events of Fertilization
• Early Embryonic Development and Implantation
• Later Embryonic and Fetal Development
• Hormonal Changes During Pregnancy
• 22.5 Parturition and Lactation
• Events of Parturition
• Lactation
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 23 The Immune System
• 23.1 Anatomy of the Immune System
• Physical Barriers
• Leukocytes
• Lymphoid Tissues
• 23.2 Pathogens That Activate the Immune Response
• Viruses
• Bacteria
• Fungi
• Parasites
• 23.3 Organization of the Body’s Defenses
• Nonspecific Defenses
• Specific Defenses: Immune Responses
• 23.4 Humoral Immunity
• The Role of B Lymphocytes in Antibody Production
• Antibody Function in Humoral Immunity
• 23.5 CellMediated Immunity
• Roles of T Lymphocytes in CellMediated Immunity
• Helper T Cell Activation
• Cytotoxic T Cell Activation: The Destruction of VirusInfected Cells and Tumor Cells
• 23.6 Immune Responses in Health and Disease
• Generating Immunity: Immunization
• Roles of the Immune System in Transfusion and Transplantation
• Immune Dysfunctions
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• 24 Diabetes Mellitus
• 24.1 Classification of Diabetes Mellitus
• Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
• Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
• 24.2 Acute Effects of Diabetes Mellitus
• Acute Hyperglycemia
• Diabetic Ketoacidosis
• Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Coma
• Hypoglycemic Coma
• 24.3 Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus: Early Stages
• 24.4 Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus: Advanced Stages
• Adverse Effects of Hyperglycemia
• Effects of Diabetes Mellitus on the Microvasculature
• 24.5 Progression of Diabetes Mellitus to Critical States
• Effects of Diabetes on the Macrovasculature
• Diabetic Cardiomyopathy
• 24.6 Delayed Wound Healing
• Wound Healing
• Altered Wound Healing in Diabetes
• 24.7 Treatment and Management of Diabetes Mellitus
• 24.8 Current Research on Diabetes Mellitus
• New Techniques for Insulin Administration
• Development of New Medicines for the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
• Nonpharmaceutical Therapies for the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
• Chapter Summary
• Exercises
• Answers to Figure Questions, Apply Your Knowledge, and End-of-Chapter Multiple Choice and Objective
• Credits
• Glossary
• Index